THE IQTIṢĀD FĪ AL-IʿTIQAD WITH
NOTES AND COMMENTARY
by
Dennis Morgan Davis Jr.
A dissertation submitted to the faculty of
The University of Utah
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
in
Middle East Studies/Arabic
Department of Languages and Literature
The University of Utah
May 2005
Copyright © Dennis Morgan Davis Jr. 2005
All Rights Reserved
THE UN I V E R S I T Y OF U T AH G R A D U A T E S CH O OL
SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE APPROVAL
of a dissertation submitted by
Dennis Morgan Davis Jr.
This dissertation has been read by each member of the following supervisory
committee and by majority vote has been found to be satisfactory
THE UN I V E R S I T Y OF U T AH G R A D U A T E S CH O OL
FINAL READING APPROVAL
To the Graduate Council of the University of Utah:
I have read the dissertation of Dennis Morgan Davis in its final form and have
found that (1) its format, citations, and bibliographic style are consistent and
acceptable; (2) its illustrative materials including figures, tables, and charts are in
place; and (3) the final manuscript is satisfactory to the supervisory committee
and is ready for submission to The Graduate School.
ABSTRACT
A translation into English of the first sections of Al-IqÅisād fī al-iʿtiqad
(Moderation in Belief), the major theological work of the Muslim thinker al-
Ghazālī (d. 1111) is presented, with introduction, notes, and glossary.
To the memory of George and Betty Davis
who could not wait to see this work completed.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ..iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖviii
NOTE ON CONVENTIONS ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ..x
AN INTRODUCTION TO AL-IQTIṢĀD FĪ AL-IʿTIQAD ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ…1
The Iqtiṣād fī al-itiqād ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ.ÖÖ…2
The Iqtiṣād in Translation ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ…ÖÖÖ…..5
Organization and Content of the Iqtiṣād ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ…Ö…7
The First Introduction ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ.ÖÖ8
The Second and Third Introductions ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ..ÖÖ10
The Fourth Introduction ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ.ÖÖ..14
The First Proposition ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ.ÖÖÖ20
The Second and Third Propositions ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ..ÖÖÖ..35
The Fourth through Eighth Propositions ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ..ÖÖÖ.40
The Ninth Proposition ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ..ÖÖÖÖ.44
The Tenth Proposition ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ..ÖÖÖÖ.50
Ghazālī on the Essence of God ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ..ÖÖÖÖ…57
Notes ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ60
[EXORDIUM]ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ…Ö71
Notes ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ….75
[EXPLANATORY] CHAPTER ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ.79
vii
Notes ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ83
FIRST INTRODUCTION ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ..85
Notes ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ90
SECOND INTRODUCTION ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ92
Notes ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ98
THIRD INTRODUCTION ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ..Ö100
Notes ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ..104
FOURTH INTRODUCTION ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ..105
Notes ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ..120
PART ONE ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ123
The First Proposition ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ.ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ..123
The Second Proposition ÖÖÖÖÖ.ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ.141
The Third Proposition ÖÖÖÖÖÖ.ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ142
The Fourth Proposition ÖÖÖÖÖÖ.ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ..Ö147
The Fifth Proposition ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ..ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ.149
The Sixth Proposition ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ.ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ.150
The Seventh Proposition ÖÖÖÖÖÖ..ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ…152
The Eighth Proposition ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ.ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ..166
The Ninth Proposition ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ.ÖÖ.ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ…Ö180
The Tenth Proposition ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ..ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ…199
Notes ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ..209
viii
GLOSSARY ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ…225
Notes ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ.Ö.234
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖÖ.236
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to thank my parents, Dennis and Anita Davis, for the love and support
they have always shown me. Their courage and faith opened my eyes to how
vast and wonderful the world was and is. I am also grateful for the many
teachers, leaders, and mentors who have guided and helped me over the yearsó
both academically and personally. Professor Daniel C. Peterson has given me
some of the greatest opportunities of my life as it has been my privilege to work
with him in developing the Islamic Translation Series at Brigham Young
University. Professor Michael E. Marmura, with whom I have also been
privileged to associate on that project, has been exceptionally patient with me
and generous in sharing his unparalleled expertise. And professor Bernard
Weiss, the chair of my committee, has gone out of his way to be helpful more
times than I can tell and, I suspect, more times than I am even aware of. For his
patient and careful supervision of my work I am truly grateful.
This dissertation has been a labor of love in more ways than one. Each of my
x
children has suffered long and been kind, and no person, including myself, has
sacrificed more to see it through to completion than my wife and their mother,
Kristina. She and they have shown me what pure love is.
NOTE ON CONVENTIONS
Works cited in the notes and commentary herein are always given in short
form. Primary texts in translation are cited under the translatorís name rather
than that of the original author. Full information on each work is provided in the
selected bibliography. Words of Arabic origin which appear in The New Shorter
Oxford English Dictionary are not italicized but are spelled and treated as regular
English words. In quotations from the work of other scholars, however, I have
retained their treatment of those terms.
There are two separate sequences of numbers set in square brackets
throughout the translation text. Those marked with an ìAî refer to the page
numbers of the Spanish translation of Miguel Asin Palacios. Those with no letter
refer to the critical Arabic text of Ghazālīís Iqtiṣād produced by Cubukcu and
Atay, for which page and line numbers are given. In the translation, I have
occasionally divided paragraphs differently than the Arabic text. In cases where I
have combined paragraphs, I have retained the page and line number where the
xii
assimilated paragraph began. Parentheses are occasionally used as punctuation,
but square brackets are used only for page references and around words or
phrases that have no direct correspondents in the Arabic but which are
understood to be indicated there, or are my interpolations so as to render what I
take to be the meaning of the text more clearly. Because Arabic is a language that
typically relies heavily on conjunctions rather than punctuation to demarcate
sentences, I have often begun sentences in the translation with conjunctions in
order to preserve, at least to some degree, the tone and internal cohesion of the
original text.
AN INTRODUCTION TO AL-IQTIṢĀD FĪ AL-IʿTIQAD
Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (d. 1111 C.E.) ranks as one of the most
prominent figures in the history of Islamic thought. His works have been
published, studied, and commented upon widely by Muslims and non-Muslims
alike. In the Western tradition of orientalist scholarship, Ghazālī has received no
small amount of attention, and, as is often the case when a variety of perspectives
and talents are brought to bear upon a particular subject, the amount of
controversy has tended to increase while what can be affirmed with certainty or
without opposition has commensurately diminished. The raft of questions and
debates about Ghazālīís basic beliefs and attitudes, their origins, and their impact
on subsequent thinkers is, by now, robust. At the same time, there are large
portions of Ghazālīís oeuvre that remain inaccessible to those who might be
interested in these questions but who lack the necessary familiarity with classical
Arabic to read them. In this dissertation I will provide an English translation of a
significant portion of Ghazālīís lengthiest and most systematic work of kalam,
2
Al-Iqtiṣād fī al-iʿtiqād. It is hoped that the translation, together with the notes and
commentary that accompany it, will be a further contribution to the ongoing
conversation about al-Ghazālī and his thought.
The Iqtiṣād fī al-itiqād
The Iqtiṣād is the fulfillment of an intention Ghazālī stated in Tahāfut alfalāsifah
to write a constructive work of theology. Michael E. Marmura has
argued, on the basis of George Houraniís revised chronology,1 that although the
descriptor Ghazālī uses to forecast the work he will write is Qawāʿīd al-ʿaqāʾid,
which became the title of a later treatise he incorporated into the Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm aldīn,
the Iqtiṣād, coming as soon after the Tahāfut as it does, actually fulfils the
commitment better.2 In fact, Ghazālī even uses a phrase that recalls the titles of
both works on the first page of the Iqtiṣād. He writes, ìIndeed, the norm that
must needs be followed in principles of belief (qawāʾīd al-iʿtiqād) is moderation
(iqtiṣād) and restraint upon the straight pathî (1.14ñ15).
The Iqtiṣād has been called Ghazālīís ìchief work of dogmatics.î W.
Montgomery Watt, following Maurice Bouges, indicates that it was ìprobably
composed shortly before or shortly after his departure from Baghdad [c. CE
3
1095].ì3 In his revised chronology of Ghazālīís works, George F. Hourani argued
that the Itiqṣād along with Mīzān al-ʿamāl was completed before or during
Ghazālīís crisis of faith which led him to abandon his prestigious post at the
Niẓāmiyya school in Baghdad and enter upon the Sufi path in a personal quest
for authentic religious certitude. Hourani plausibly reasons that it was unlikely
Ghazālī composed the Iqtiṣād after he began his journey, ìfor it is hard to believe
that this prosaic piece of kalām was one of the first products of his new life as a
Ṣūfī.î4 In fact, he argues, the likelihood was that Mīzān was composed even after
Iqtiṣād and still in the final year before Ghazālī left Baghdad. The seeming lack of
coherence in Mīzān might even be an indication of Ghazālīís troubled state of
mind at that time.5 To this evidence we would add that the pedagogical nature of
the Iqtiṣādóit is addressed to studentsóalso argues for its completion while
Ghazālī was still in his profession at the Niẓāmiyya.
In any event, Hourani argued,
now that both Itiqṣād and Mīzān have been placed with some confidence in
the period when Ghazālī was approaching or actually immersed in the
intense spiritual crisis of his life, the importance of these two works for
understanding the evolution of his thought will readily be understood.
Both of them therefore deserve more serious studies than they have
hitherto received, and they should be read in the context of the authorís
4
revealing account of this state of mind at the time, narrated in Munqīdh
[mīn al-ḍalāl], 122ñ30.6
The study of Ghazālīís Iqtiṣād presented here is intended to be a first small step
in that direction. Though a full treatment of what the Iqtiṣād reveals about its
authorís state of mind at the time he wrote it must be deferred to later studies, a
few preliminary observations are included in the comments that follow. Before
that and many other questions can be properly addressed, however, the Iqtiṣādó
ìprosaicî though it may beódeserves to be studied and understood as a work in
its own right.
Toward the end of his career, long after he had crossed what may be called
the ascetic meridian of his life and had become an advocate for Sufi modes of
ìknowingî about things divine, Ghazālī still held a positive regard for his Iqtiṣād.
Ghazālī claims the Iqtiṣād has a greater potential benefit for the prepared reader
than the usual works of kalam.
It is an independent, self-contained, work that contains the essentials of
the science of the mutakallimūn. But it is more adequate in its proofs and
more apt to knock at the doors of knowledge (wa aqrab ilā qarʿ abwāb alma
ʿrifa) than the scholastic jargon (al-kalām al-rasmiyy) encountered in the
books of the mutakallimiūn.7
Both Watt and Marmura are correct, I believe, in seeing this statement as
5
significant because it is a late endorsement by Ghazālī of his much earlier work
on kalam, expressed ìlong after he had become a Sufi and after he had written
such works as the IḥyāʾÖ.î8 It is therefore evidence that he ìnever ceased to be
an Ashʿari in dogmatics, even though he came to hold that intellectual
discussions in religion should range far beyond the limited field of dogmatics.î9
Thus, too much should not be made of the fact that Ghazālī in some places
discusses the limitations of kalam; for though it does have its limitationsóand,
as he says in the Iqtiṣād itself, it is not incumbent upon all believersóstill, it has
its place as an antidote to erroneous beliefs or doubts arising within the Islamic
community.
The Iqtiṣād in Translation
There has never been a full English translation of Al-Iqtiṣād fī al-itiqad, but
most of its second part has been translated into English by ʿAbdu-r-Raḥmān Abū
Zayd and published under the title, Al-Ghazālī on Divine Predicates and their
Properties; Michael E. Marmura has published a translation of the first chapter of
part two in his article ìAl-Ghazālīís Chapter on Divine Power in the Iqtiṣādî; and
there is a full Spanish translation of the Iqtiṣād, published in 1929 by Miguel Asin
6
Palacios as El justo medio en la creencia. I have been unable to find evidence of
published translations of the Iqtiṣād (whether in whole or major sections) in any
other language.
Abū Zaydís translation covers most but not all of the second of four major
parts into which the Iqtiṣād is divided. This section, as Abū Zaydís title indicates,
contains Ghazālīís explication of the divine attributes and of the properties
common to them all. In his second introduction to Divine Predicates, Abū Zayd
also has an important analysis of Ghazālīís adaptation of the syllogistic method
to the kalam genre. He also translates Ghazālīís later stated opinions about the
importance of the Iqtiṣād as given in both the Ihyāʾ ʿulūm al-dīn and Jawāhir al-
Qurʾān. For some reason that he does not explain, he does not translate the
discussion on Godís power (the first of the divine attributes), nor does he
translate Ghazālīís discussion of the first property of the attributes. Marmuraís
translation provides much of what is missing here, together with an insightful
commentary on Ghazālīís discussion of divine will.
Though dated and rather free as translations go, Asinís Spanish rendition of
the Iqtiṣād nevertheless follows the gist of Ghazālīís treatise quite well in most
7
cases. Asinís extensive translations of and (admittedly Christian-biased)
expertise on Ghazālīís works (among many others) remain underappreciated and
even unknown among many Western scholars today.10
The translation from the Iqtiṣād offered herein covers all of Ghazālīís
introductory material and the first of the four main parts into which he divided
his treatise. In terms of volume, it covers just under half of the total content of the
book but none of the sections that have previously been translated into English
by the other scholars noted above.
The Arabic text of the Iqtiṣād I have used is the critical edition prepared by
Cubucu and Atay (Ankara, 1962). Although it is by far the best edition of the text,
and entirely adequate for our purposes here, Marmura has shown that it is not
yet definitive.11
Organization and Content of the Iqtiṣād
The Iqtiṣād is written with students in mind. Its organization and tone reflect
both a pedagogical and a polemical concern. It is composed as a primer on how
to conduct a debate with oneís ideological rivals. It is intended not so much for
the actual convincing of real opponents but for study by the qualified believer
8
who will one day, ostensibly, present similar arguments in actual debates or
contests of ideology. For an audience Ghazālī presumably had in mind his
students at the Niẓāmiyya where he was head lecturer in legal theory. In the
course of his exposition, Ghazālī takes positions, mostly along Ashʿarite lines, on
a number of basic theological issues, dialectically presenting and then answering
challenges to each of his claimsóchallenges such as had been or might have been
raised by an incredulous ìopponent.î In most cases Ghazālī is specifically
envisioning an opponent either from among the extreme literalists (whom he
identifies with the Hashwiyya), the falāsifah, or the Muʿtazilites. He offers his
arguments and rebuttals, taking care to show at key moments that the soundness
and superiority of his position derive from striking a successful balance between
reason and revelation. This is the ìmoderation in beliefî for which the work as a
whole is named.
The Title and Exordium
ìModeration in Beliefî is the most widely accepted and accurate translation
of the title of this work into English. The term iqtiṣād derives from a root that
means to move in a straightforward, direct path, and means prudence or
9
economy of useóhence, ìmoderation.î Some translators have, by their choice of
terms for this title, connected Ghazālīís work to the classical Greek idea of the
ìgolden mean.î Asinís justo medio, carrying the connotation of the ìhappy
medium,î is one example of this, and Richard J. McCarthyís gloss ìThe Golden
Mean in Belief,î which has been followed by others, is obviously another (see
Deliverance, 106 n. 62). Abū Zayd prefers this as the most accurate translation (On
Divine Predicates, xxxix), but his position by no means reflects a unanimous
consensus. Furthermore, it is not at all clear, either from the connotation of the
word iqtiṣād or the substance of the work itself, that Ghazālī had any notion of
the golden mean in mind; thus, the idea of a ìjust balance,î is better reserved for
glosses of another work of his, Al-Qistas al-mustaqīm.
Ghazālī begins his treatise with praise for God and those orthodox believers
who have been guided to reconcile the requirements of reason with the claims of
revelation, avoiding the pitfalls of unquestioningly accepting the extremes of the
literalists on the one hand and the intellectualists on the other.12 The one, he says,
misunderstand the revelations because they will not be guided by reason. The
others exceed the limits of orthodoxy by adopting rationalized positions that
10
unnecessarily contradict the plain meaning of or obvious inferences from
revelation. The right course, he says, is one that puts reason at the service of
understanding and properly interpreting of the revelations. ìReason, together
with the Qurʾān, is light upon lightî (2.11).
Next comes an explanatory chapter (bāb) that amounts to an annotated
outline of the book with its four introductions and four main sections. Ghazālīís
principal topic throughout, he announces, will be ìGod most high,î thus
explicitly situating his treatise as a work of theology.
The First Introduction
The first introduction (muqadimah) (at 6.5 ff.) is written to establish that the
subject of the treatise is deserving of human attention, since to waste time on
pointless or frivolous topics while salvation hangs in the balance would be a
grave error. It is here that Ghazālī makes what is perhaps the most direct allusion
to his own state of mind as he composes the Iqtiṣād. He says (6ñ7) that reports of
prophets coming with signs and wonders, showing evidence that there might
indeed be a God who rewards and punishes people with heaven or hell, have the
power
11
to tear peaceful security from the heart and to fill it with fear and
trembling and to move it to study and pondering. [They can] snatch [the
heart] from peace and stillness, and frighten it with the danger to which
one is exposed while living in negligent ease.
This passage bears a strong resonance with the personal account Ghazālī later
gave of his six-month struggle to commit himself fully to the Sufi path of
knowledge, a struggle that was underway, as best we can ascertain, during the
writing of the Iqtiṣād, while Ghazālī was still in his teaching position at the
Niẓāmiyya. Recalling that period in Munqīdh, Ghazālī wrote:
One day I would firmly resolve to leave Baghdad and disengage myself
from those circumstances, and another day I would revoke my resolution.
. . . Mundane desires began tugging me with their chains to remain as I
was, while the herald of faith was crying out: ìAway! Up and away! Only
a little is left of your life, and a long journey lies before you! All the theory
and practice in which you are engrossed is eyeservice and fakery! If you do
not prepare now for the afterlife, when will you do so? And if you do not sever
these attachments now, then when will you sever them?
At such thoughts the call would reassert itself and I would make an
irrevocable decision to run off and escape. Then Satan would return to the
attack and say: ìThis is a passing state: beware, then of yielding to it! For
it will quickly vanish. Once you have given in to it and given up your
present renown and splendid position free from vexation and renounced
your secure situation untroubled by the contention of your adversaries,
your soul might again look longingly at all thatóbut it would not be easy
to return to it!î13
Ghazālī does not directly say in the Munqīdh that he was in search of salvation,
12
but rather that his quest was for ìsure and certain knowledge.î14 The unstated
assumption behind all that he says, however, is that any quest for certainty about
anything must find its premise and terminus in God. A belief in God was so
basic to and inseparable from Ghazālīís quest for truth that to seek the one was to
seek the other.
It was God, he says, who showed him that there are certain primary truths
that cannot be proven or found out by any rational or empirical means, they are
simply ìpresent in the mind.î15 Foremost of these primary truths is the source
that discovers them to the soul in the first placeóthat is, God. Thus, for Ghazālī,
a conviction of the existence of God and of the other fundamental tenets of the
Islamic creed were not just end points resulting from successful arguments and
proofs, but indispensable and irreducible premises for the acquisition of
knowledge by means of the various human disciplines.
If read in this context, the first introduction to the Iqtiṣād shows contemporary
evidence of Ghazālīís growing sense of spiritual malaiseóthat to know of the
existence of God and of the punishment or reward of the afterlife was not
enough; he was responsible to do something about this knowledge by renouncing
13
the world, seeking purity, and obtaining a more direct knowledge of God. He
writes:
Once all of this has become clear for us, we would then undoubtedly be
obligedóif we were prudentóto take our precautions and look to our
souls and to despise this transitory world in comparison with that other,
everlasting realm. Thus, the reasonable man sees to his destiny and is not
deceived by his own works. . . .
There is no other course, once the impulse to find out [about these
things] has occurred, than to instigate a quest for salvation (8).
Ghazālīís first introduction to the Iqtiṣād may thus be read as a poignant
meditation upon his own soulís predicament and evidence of the life-changing
course of action he was contemplating when he wrote it. Less than a year after
completing the Iqtiṣād he would renounce his position at the Niẓāmiyya and
embark on the life of a Sufi ascetic. He would journey to Damascus and submit to
the tutorship of one of the Sufi masters there; he would go to Jerusalem and
meditate for many days in the grotto within the Dome of the Rock; and he would
perform the Haj.16 Ten years later he would return to public life and write his
magnum opus, the Ihyāʾ ʿulūm al-dīn (Revival of the Religious Sciences), a
comprehensive treatment of what he believed true Islam entailedónot only in
creed and outward practice but, at least as significantly, in private, inward
14
sincerity of intent and devotion.
The Second and Third Introductions
In the second introduction (9.2 ff.), Ghazālī compares rational arguments to
the physicianís medications, which can do more harm than good if not employed
judiciously. He then divides people into four different classes.
The first group are what we might call the simple believers, who accept the
revelations and prophethood of Muḥammad on simple, untroubled faith. He
respectfully includes the first generation of Muslims in this category, writing
with a sense of admiration for those whose faith is not clouded by sophistical
pretensions.
The second group (10.5) are the unbelievers and innovators. It is significant
that he puts the two in the same group, but his intent here is somewhat difficult
to discern, for he does not specify who or what precisely he means by
ìunbelieverî or ìinnovatorî (al-mubtadaʿah). However, in the Fayṣāl al-tafriqa
bayna al-islām waíl-zandaqa (Distinguishing the Difference between Islam and
Heresy), Ghazālī offers this advice:
[R]estrain your tongue, to the best of your ability, from indicting the
15
people who face Mecca (on charges of Unbelief) as long as they say,
ìThere is no god but God, Muhammad is the messenger of God,î without
categorically contradicting this. And for them to contradict this
categorically is for them to affirm the possibility that the Prophet, with or
without an excuse, delivered lies. Indeed branding people Unbelievers is a
serious matter. Remaining silent, on the other hand, entails no liability at
all.17
In other words, Ghazālī held that anyone who sincerely made the profession of
faith should not be classed as an unbeliever unless they in one way or another
demonstrated that they believed Muḥammad to be false in his claim to prophecy.
Of those facing Mecca to pray, he implies, this ought to be a small group indeed.
Relative to charging with the lesser but still serious transgression of
ìinnovationî (bidaʾa)ówhich means to introduce teachings or practices that are
not warranted by the canonical authorities of the Qur̦ʾān, Hadith, and learned
consensus (ijmaʿah)óGhazālī says that one case in which the charge is merited is
when the claims made by a person or party are not sufficiently buttressed by the
logical proofs they adduce.
If. . . the logical proof is not definitive but gives rise to a preponderance of
probability while not posing any known threat to religion, such as (that
underlying) the Muʿtazilitesí negation of the beatific vision, then this
constitutes an unsanctioned innovation, not an act of Unbelief.18
Ghazālī deals with the specifics of this example in part one, proposition nine of
16
the Iqtiṣād, which we will discuss in its place.
Ghazālī composed the Fayṣāl as a response to what he felt was an overzealous
attitude among the various dogmatic schools; they were too prone to
accuse one another of unbelief over theological disagreements. His tone there is
more conciliatory and magnanimous than it is here in the Iqtiṣād. In this section,
for example, he frankly says (10.5 ff.) that the innovators and unbelievers are
boorish, lacking the intelligence to follow the plainly revealed truth, let alone the
kinds of arguments made in kalam. The whip or the sword might convince them,
but even the most spot-on arguments will not, he says in this rather convoluted
passage. In fact, logical arguments will only tend to set such ignorant folk deeper
in their erroneous views.
The third group (11.3) is subdivided into two further groups. Individuals in
each group are acquainted with orthodoxy, but they are troubled by doubts or
uncertainty regarding their beliefs. One doubts because of questions their own
analytical natures have led them to ask. The other doubts because of
acquaintance with doubt-promoting assertions or arguments from others.
Ghazālī says that the remedy to such doubts should be carefully calibrated to the
17
needs and capacities of the ìpatientsî to whom it is applied, with the strong
medicine of demonstrative proofs being used as a last resort, and with reserve
even then.
The fourth group (11.14) are ìpeople in errorî (which is presumably more
than just having doubts, as those in the third group have) who might with the
proper, benevolent treatment be led to accept the truth. In this context Ghazālī
gives a pointed warning against fanaticism or harshness in contending for the
faith. Such antagonism, he says, only leads people to resist correction, ìso their
false beliefs take even deeper root in their souls.î Those who lend such
counterproductive ìhelp,î he says, ìwill be held to account on the day of
judgment.î
In the third introduction (13.3) Ghazālī states his position that the discipline
of kalam is a community rather than an individual obligation. He also famously
states his opinion that of the three disciplinesókalam, canon law (al-fiqh), and
medicineócanon law is the most important because it is needed by both the well
and the sick, doubter and believer alike. Ghazālīís position is an unusual one in
that it reverses the priority often found in the writings of jurist-theologians who
18
held that kalam (usūl al-dīn) was logically prior to legal theory (usūl al-fiqh). The
postulates upon which legal theory was built were typically supplied by kalam.
It was within kalam that fundamental truth claims and principles were
established, and upon these the more prosaic or mundane judgments of the
Islamic law were based. Ghazālīís attitude seems to have been that this did not
necessarily have to be so. The fact that he included discussions of logic in his
works on legal theory might be read as an indication that he thought the
fundamentals for legal reasoning such as kalam usually provided could be
workout within the science itself, without any further resort to kalam.19 At the
very least it might be said that Ghazālī approached the question of the relative
merits of the sciences from a pragmatic rather than theoretical perspective. He
simply asked which of the professions would be needed by the most number of
people, and the answer was canon law.
Ghazālīís attitude toward kalam has been much discussed by scholars. To be
sure, Ghazālī does say that kalam is important, even essential, but it is so for a
more narrow reason than jurisprudence is. McCarthy uses this as evidence that
Ghazālī ìalmost regarded [kalam] as a necessary evil.î
19
He recognized its essential character of a defensive apologetic and
countenanced its use in certain limited cases as a possible remedy for
those beset with doubts about the faith. Interestingly enough, his very last
work, completed a few days before his death, was Iljām al-ʿawāmm ʿan alkhawḍ
fī ʿIlm al-kalām [Curbing the Masses from Engaging in the Science of
Kalam].20
Late in his career, as he wrote his autobiographical Munquidh mīn al-ḍalāl,
Ghazālī recalled that for him personally the science of kalam had not been
adequate to his spiritual needs because
they based their arguments on premises which they took from their
opponents and which they were compelled to admit by naive belief
(taqliḍd), or the consensus of the community, or bare acceptance of the
Qurʾan and Traditions. . . .
This was of little use in the case of one who admitted nothing at all
save logically necessary truths. Theology was not adequate to my case and
was unable to cure the malady of which I complained. . . .
[T]hey did not deal with the question thoroughly in their thinking and
consequently did not arrive at results sufficient to dispel universally the
darkness of confusion due to the different views of men. I do not exclude
the possibility that for others than myself these results have been
sufficient; indeed, I do not doubt that this has been so for quite a number.
But these results were mingled with naive belief in certain matters which
are not included among first principles.
My purpose here, however, is to describe my own case, not to
disparage those who sought a remedy thereby, for the healing drugs vary
with the disease. How often one sick manís medicine proves to be
anotherís poison!21
Ghazālī continued to affirm a place and a need for the science of kalam within
20
the Islamic community to the end of his life, but he also continued to believe that
the scope of its relevance and usefulness was limited. One could be a devout
Muslim and find ìsuccessî in obtaining salvation without it.
The Fourth Introduction
In the fourth introduction (15.8), Ghazālī presents the methods of proof that
he will be using throughout the treatise. This section is valuable in its own right
as a precis of demonstrative methods, perhaps the briefest of several that Ghazālī
penned over the span of his career. He himself mentions, for example, the Miḥakk
al-naẓar fī al-manÅiq and the Miʿyār al-ʿilm. Asin gives an analysis of the contents
of these two manuals on logic in the second appendix to his translation of the
Iqtiṣād. He also notes that in the introduction to Al-Mustaṣfā min ʿilm al-uṣūl,
Ghazālī summarizes the doctrine of the aforementioned manuals and that in the
first seven chapters of Qistas he also discusses the rules of the categorical,
hypothetical, and disjunctive syllogismsóthe same kinds of syllogisms he
reviews here. Finally, the first book of Maqāṣid al-falāsifah is dedicated to logic per
se.22
In the Miḥak, Miʿyar, and Maqasid, Ghazālī discusses the conditions for
21
syllogistic reasoning, beginning with definitions of terms and categories
(including grammar and lexical analysis), continuing with propositions and
conclusions, and finally discussing various kinds of syllogism and proof, all
based on the Aristotelian system. In QuisÅas, Mustaṣfa, and the Iqtiṣād he forgoes
any formal presentation of preliminaries to the syllogism and simply discusses
kinds of demonstration. Of these latter three works, the QuisÅas has the most
detailed discussion of the several kinds of syllogism, ranging over a number of
chapters. The summary in the Iqtiṣād is more concise.
In this section of the Iqtiṣād Ghazālī follows a pattern common to his
discussions of logic in other worksóthat is, he uses the argument for the
temporal creation of the world as the example to illustrate his demonstrative
methodology. He offers more detailed arguments against the eternity of the
world later in the treatise (see 27.7, ff.).
The first method of proof Ghazālī discusses (15.12ñ16.10) is called sabr wíaltaqsīm,
which I have translated as ìdisjunctive reasoning.î Some clarification of
what Ghazālī intended here is wanted. As defined in general terms, sabr wíaltaqsīm
is ìa demonstrative method in which the question is divided into all
22
possible cases and then each case is rejected until one ëvalidí case remains.î23 It is
thus a kind of argument through elimination (called burhān al-tamānuʿ by al-
Juwaynī).24 There is some question as to whether this should be called a
syllogism in the technical sense, since the first term can technically contain more
than two disjuncts; nevertheless, it is still possible to phrase the entire argument
in syllogistic form. Thus, for example, either A or B or C or D; but not A, not B,
and not D; therefore C. In any event, the example Ghazālī gives of sabra wíaltaqsīm
still employs a disjunct with only two alternatives and a conclusion, thus
conforming fully to the classical form of the disjunctive syllogism.
Asin, for his part, translates Ghazālīís sabra wa al-taqsīm as ìexploracion
dilematica,î meaning ìdilemmatic speculation.î This choice of words however,
seems to miss the mark. Dilematic reasoning has been defined as a form of
disjunctive proof. The basic disjunctive syllogism has two moods. One is to
affirm one part of the disjunction in the minor and deny the other in the
conclusion; e.g. the earth is either at rest or in motion; now the earth is in
motion; therefore it is not at rest.25
The second is to
deny one part of the disjunction in the minor and affirm the other in the
conclusion; e.g. the earth is either at rest or in motion; now the earth is not
23
at rest; therefore it is in motion.26
In either of these moods the truth claim of the minor term is either an affirmation
or a denial of one disjunct of the major, yielding its opposite as a conclusion. But
in the dilemmatic mode there is no conclusion per se. Rather, the major term
provides two alternatives in a disjunctive proposition, as usual, but then, rather
than a minor term that denies or affirms one of the disjuncts and yields the other
as the conclusion, both parts of the disjunct are answered in a way unfavorable to
the opponent.27 This is not Ghazālīís method, however. As he himself states it, his
aim is to so construct the syllogism so that ìno matter what the opponent admits
of the two root premises, he will also necessarily and unavoidably have to admit
the branch [conclusion] that derives from both of them, and that is the truth of
the claim.î Thus, Ghazālīís example: ìThe world is either temporal or it is
eternal; but it is absurd [or impossible] that it should be eternal; therefore it is
temporalî is not a dilemmatic syllogism in the strict sense because it has a single
major premise and a conclusion rather than two conditional minor premises. It is
disjunctive syllogism.
The second method Ghazālī mentions (16.11) is the categorical syllogism. He
24
does not say so, but it may be presumed that any of the various moods of the
categorical are intended. He discusses each of these in detail in the section on
logic of the Maqasid.
The third method (17.2) is reductio ad absurdum. It is a fairly explicit statement
of the method Ghazālī used throughout much of the Tahāfut. Marmura has noted
that in some arguments made in the Tahāfut Ghazālī adopts, or seems to adopt,
positions that he later repudiates in the Iqtiṣād. The reason for this, as Marmura
persuasively argues, is not that Ghazālī had changed his mind or was being
inconsistent in his beliefs, but rather that he was resorting to this method of
adopting his opponentsí own premises for the sake of an argument ad absurdum.28
Ghazālīís example at this point is not easy to follow and seems a rather weak
demonstration of the method. Summarized, the argument seems to be: If the
revolutions of the sphere have no end [as the opponent claims], then that which
has no end has come to an end; this result is absurd; therefore, the premise is
absurd. But Ghazālī does not explain what he has in mind when he states that
something that has no end has ended, or what his basis is for asserting that such
has been the case. Without that explanation, the example remains ambiguous. It
25
would seem that Ghazālī simply intends give a foretaste of the kind of reductio ad
absurdum argument he will be using, without making any attempt at this point to
answer the various objections and ambiguities that his chosen example seems to
containóproblems he would have to address if he were really trying to establish
his claim. He does acknowledge the possibility and even likelihood of objections
to both premises of his example; that he does not answer them immediately
might be forgiven if it is assumed he is giving it only for purposes of illustration
here. However, when Ghazālī raises the example again (32.9) in the context of
proving the temporality (or origination in time) of the world, he does no more at
that point than in his introduction to explain what he means when he says
ìsomething that has no end has ended.î His version of the same argument in the
Tahāfut is equally as vague.29 We are left to make the best interpretation of it that
we can.
I suggest that he might be playing on the distinction between actual and
potential infinites (as Aristotle discussed themóor actual and improper infinites
as Hegel would later write of them). The revolutions of the spheres as described
here are at best potential infinites, since at any given moment the spheres are at a
26
particular point in their path and have not yet completed their endless
revolutions, and in that sense they may be thought of as stopped, their position
finite and measured with finite numbers. The potential infinite presupposes the
ability to enumerate the revolutions up to any given point and thereby,
effectively, stop or cut off what was supposed to have been infinite. To be
actually infinite, those unending revolutions must already be actual and
therefore beyond measureóbecause they are infinite. Ghazālī seems to be saying
that such an actual infinite is not possible.30
Ghazālī, like others of his school, is clearly uncomfortable with the idea of
anything other than God having infinite duration, motion, or extension. He
rejects the infinite divisibility of atoms, any infinite regress of accident in
substrate, and the infinite motion of the spheres, all in the interest of denying any
coeternal being with God, a position which is in turn demanded by his
commitment to a straightforward reading of the revealed word, that God is the
creatoróthat is, the originatoróof the world (cosmos).
Before continuing Ghazālī pauses (18.10 ff.) to chide those who get bogged
down in arguments over semantics rather than coming to a clear understanding
27
of the basic concepts involved and moving forward. In this regard he also
entertains an ostensible objection raised by a pupil who wonders if it may not be
important to know the precise ways that different schools employ the various
technical terms. Ghazālīís conviction that underlying ideas are more important
than the language used to expresses them and that becoming fixated on
terminology will only lead to confusion and unnecessary wrangling is a hallmark
of his approach in the Iqtiṣād. Lazarus-Yafeh has shown that in some of his
earliest works, such as Miʿyār al-ʿilm and Miḥakk al-naẓār, Ghazālī can be seen
using the ìcommonly accepted terminologyî of the science of logic, but that ìhe
seems to discard it completely from the Itiqṣād on.î31 Lazarus-Yafeh identifies a
number of passages in Ghazālīís oeuvre where Ghazālī states
that he is interested in the content, the ideas (ìMaʿānīî), rather than in the
correct expressions (ìAlfāẓî) of his writings, and he seems to include
technical terminology (ìIṣÅilāḥî) among the latter. Already in his
introduction to the ìTahāfutî he mentions that he will use in this book
technical terminology only to address his philosophical opponents in
order to impress them with his own mastery of, and familiarity with, their
subject. Later on, however, he developed a certain contempt for accurate
terminology, maintaining that fastidiousness of expression distracts the
readerís attention from the intrinsic, real meaning (ìḤaqāʾiqî) of the
content.32
As evidence, Lazarus-Yafeh cites the passage mentioned above from Tahāfut, the
28
passage mentioned here from the fourth introduction to the Itiqṣād, three others
from Iḥyaʾ, and one from Mishkāt al-anwār (ibid., 260ñ61). In the notes to the
translation I mention a number of further instances where Ghazālī seems to be
changing terms while still referencing the same concepts. This emphasis on ideas
rather than terminology may well be a further reason for Ghazālīís later
favorable appraisal of the Iqtiṣād over other works of kalam as ìcoming closer to
the doors of knowledgeî than they.33 It was more important to see to the heart of
a matter and understand the true meaning of something than to merely have a
command of the jargon. It was his quest to discover the truth of things that
drove Ghazālī across the ascetic meridian of his life, and it is no small factor in
the style of his writing in the Iqtiṣād.
Ghazālī concludes this section with an interesting discussion of the mental
activity involved in the construction of a logical argument that proves a desired
proposition. It is significant that he is teaching a system in which the ìdesired
resultî comes first and determines the argument to be made in support of it. But
how does one determine what the ìdesired resultî ought to be in the first place?
On my reading, Ghazālī derives these logical targets from the claims of the
29
revealed, divine word, the reality and veracity of which are themselves sustained
by logical proofs. That there is a God and that he reveals his word by chosen
messengersóchief among them the Prophet Muḥammadóare claims that do not
rely on faith alone for their acceptance. They are subject to logical demonstration,
and, once demonstrated, they inform the further arguments to be made, such as
that the world is created, not pre-eternal, that God is visible, and that miracles
are simply the operation of the divine will to enact events that do not conform to
the usual pattern. The claims of revelation also inform the counter arguments to
be made against those whose reasoning or uncritical acceptance of tradition have
led them to conclusions incompatible with the revelations.
Ghazālī enumerates six sources of cognition (mudārik). I take these to mean,
the starting points for logical arguments. The first of these he calls the evidence
of the senses and includes both that which is perceived externally (al-mushāhidah
al-ẓāhirah) and internally (al-mushāhidah al-baÅinah). In a later treatise, the
Mustaṣfā, Ghazālī elaborates these two modes separately, but here and in the
Miyʿār, he combines them under the single rubric of that which is perceived by
the senses.34
30
The second source is ìpurely intellectualî (al-ʿaql al-maḥḍ), which recognizes
such a priori truths as constitute the very foundations of logical reasoning. The
third is ìcorroborative reportsî (al-mutawātir) which was most often invoked and
explained in works of jurisprudence, a discipline in which Ghazālī distinguished
himself. Based on Ghazālīís discussion of it in his late work on jurisprudence,
Mustaṣfā, the theory of tawatur has been stated by Weiss as follows:
the widespread recurrence of true statements about past events produces
in the minds of hearers a knowledge that these statements are true.35
Weiss goes on to explain that
“widespreadî must. . . be understood to mean ìon a scale sufficient to rule
out the possibility of collaborative fabrication.î From this statement of the
theory two corollaries follow: (1) a recurrence of true statements about
past events which is not widespread does not produce in the minds of
hearers a knowledge that these statements are true, and likewise (2) the
widespread recurrence of false statements about past events does not
produce in the minds of hearers a knowledge that they are true. . . . What
the second corollary is meant to say is that knowledge, though a subjective
state, cannot exist apart from its proper object. . . . If the statement is false,
one cannot have the knowledge that it is true.36
In the Iqtiṣād Ghazālī gives an instructive example of a use for tawatur having to
do with a foreigner who will not accept the veracity of the Prophet Muḥammadís
revelation of the Qurʾān. It is significant because of the light it sheds on how
31
Ghazālī understood tawātur. In the example (23.7), the foreigner has not heard of
Muḥammadís call as a prophet and cannot, therefore, be expected to accept his
revelation of the Qurʾān until he has had ìsufficient time to be informed by those
corroborative reportsî of the Prophetís existence, his calling, and revelations.
Implicit in his statement, though, is the assumption that, ìGod willing,î such a
person will eventually be exposed to a sufficient (kāmil) number37 of witnesses to
the veracity of Muḥammadís prophetic mission that a certainty that such a man
did in fact live and did in fact reveal the Qurʾān will become established in his
mind. This certainty will take hold not just because of the large number of
witnesses to it, but because, in addition, and crucially, it is in fact true. If it were
not, it would not take hold, Ghazālī says, despite the number of witnesses. As
Weiss has put it:
The theory expounded by Ghazzali [in Mustasfa] affirms simply that if a
statement about a past event is true in the sense of being empirically based
and if it is sufficiently widely circulated to rule out the possibility of
collaborative fabrication there will occur spontaneously in the mind of the
hearer, i.e. without any logical antecedents, a knowledge that the
statement is true.38
This is obviously a problematic position as viewed from modern norms of
empiricism and logic. One is tempted to ask, for example, what Ghazālī would
32
do with the Christians and Jews who ìknowî widely and persistently attested
yet, from his perspective, erroneous things about the sacred past? Would he say
that they in fact doubt the veracity of their faith claims because it is simply not
possible to really believe a falsehood? Ghazālī seems to offer no answer. He
simply classifies knowledge based on corroborative reports as primary
knowledge because it has no logical antecedents. It simply occurs within the
soul, given the right conditions, through a process that remains unconscious,
ìhidden.î ìThe logic entailed in the ëhiddení reasoning,î Weiss observes, ìis
obscure at best, and Ghazālī does not choose to elaborate upon it.î39
Nevertheless, because he does say that it comes about without any logical or
empirical antecedents, it is to be classed, in his system, among the sources of
primary rather than derivative knowledge.
With the fifth and sixth sources of knowledge, which we examine further
below, Ghazālī differs significantly from his other, later enumeration of the
sources of knowledge (i.e., in the Mustaṣfā). In particular, there is no mention
here of induction (al-tajribīyah), while in the Mustaṣfā the fifth and sixth sources
discussed here are omitted.
33
The fifth source (22.5) he calls ìthings that are heardî (al-samʿiyyāt). In one
sense this term corresponds roughly to Aristotleís concept of legomena (things
commonly said), but is understood within a more formal framework. Weiss has
pointed out that this is roughly synonymous with naqliyyat (ìthings that are
transmittedî) and manqulat (ìthings that are reportedî), the idea in all of these
cases being to indicate knowledge that derives from an historical or traditional
authority and has been handed down from one person to the next. ìSamʿiyyat
represents tradition from the point of view of the hearer. . . . Included under this
heading are things like the events of the latter days and the hereafter
(eschatology)óthings that can only be known from tradition, not through
reason.î40 Ghazālī later acknowledges that premises from things that are heard
ìare not useful except for persons who accept them as valid criteriaî (23.15).
The sixth and last source (22.12) is the premise taken from the propositions
that the opponent concedes. This kind of premise is interesting because of its
tactical nature. Here is an explicit statement of one of the methods Ghazālī
famously used in Tahāfut al-falāsifa, arguing from premises that he himself did
not accept, but which his opponents did. Michael Marmura has discussed this
34
kind of argument by Ghazālī, showing that what has sometimes been mistaken
for inconsistency or vacillation on Ghazālīís part is really simply attributable to
this tactic.41 It might be asked how this method differs from the secondó
argumentum ad absurdum. After all, the point of adopting the propositions of oneís
opponent is ostensibly to show them to be untenableóthat is, absurd. A partial
answer might be that this sixth mode is more restricted still, because, as Ghazālī
puts it, it is ìnot useful for rational speculation except to be used in reasoning
with someone who adheres to that school of thoughtîóin other words, someone
who holds the premises to be valid (23.14). This is different from argumentum ad
absurdum which might proceed from hypothetical premises that neither party to
the discussion concedes but which nevertheless ultimately serve to establish
oneís position. In the sixth method Ghazālī does not necessarily say that the
point of the argument is to invalidate the premises the opponent accepts. The
point might not be to reach a conclusion that is valid, but simply one that can be
used to refute the opponent. It might even be that Ghazālī had ad hominem
arguments in mind here.42
35
The First Proposition
Ghazālīís first proposition concerning Godís essence is that God exists.
Ghazālī begins immediately with the argument for a cause for the existence of
the temporal worldówhich cause must be nontemporal. In the process of setting
up the argument, Ghazālī pauses to define key terms such as ìworld,î
ìsubstance,î and ìbody.î Ghazālī defines the world as ìevery existent other than
God most highî which, in turn, he defines as ìall bodies and their accidents.î It
bears noting here that God is exempted from the temporality of the world on the
basis that he has neither body nor accidents. However, this has not yet been
proven. In fact, as the context makes clear, Ghazālī is proceeding on the basis that
God is by definition the only non-corporeal and non-temporal existent. But the
basis for such a definition is not provided here. That the world and things in it
are temporal may be observed by the senses, but that God is beyond the world
and outside of time are still not established and will not be established in this
section, but rather in the next four propositions.
Ghazālīís proof for God as the Maker of the world quickly becomes involved
in a complex of ancillary arguments and proofs having to do with the terms and
36
supporting arguments needed to establish the main syllogism, which he
concludes only at the very end of the chapter (34.14). The definitions and
explanations of basic terms in physical theory (ìworld,î ìsubstance,î ìbody,î
etc.) that Ghazālī proffers during the course of this chapter are admittedly sparse
relative to the size and complexity of the issues they involve. This may well be
attributable to his view of kalam as a limited means to a narrowly defined end
(resolving doubts among a certain segment of the Muslim community) rather
than a comprehensive ontology.43 Certainly it can be said that other kalam
thinkers wrote at much greater length on these topics and covered other subjects
(such as the nature of space and movement) that Ghazālī remains almost entirely
silent on in the Iqtiṣād. Nevertheless, what he does have to say about the various
topics he visits in this and other chapters constitute important statements of his
position on several basic matters; and those positions serve to establish his
affiliation with the Ashʿarite school of thought and his opposition to the ideas of
both the Muʿtazilites and the falāsifah.44
One of the most important terms Ghazālī raises at this point is jawhar, which I
usually translate as ìsubstance,î since the discussion often refers to jawhar as the
37
substrate for accident. Lane writes that ìin the conventional language of
scholastic theology jawhar signifies Substance, as opposed to accidentî (Lexicon,
476a). In his translation of the second part of the Iqtiṣād, where the context again
is usually a discussion of accidents and their substrates, Abū Zayd (Divine
Predicates) also uses ìsubstanceî to render jawhar (see, for example, pp. 3‒4). The
first time Ghazali uses the term (24.10) he adds the qualifying term fard, meaning
ìsimple,î thus giving ìsingle substance.î Ghazālī defines ìsingle substanceî as
that which occupies space but cannot be differentiated within itself (in other
words, is indivisible). This indicates the most irreducible form of substance that
is, the atom.
Although other Ashʿarites proffered other definitions for jawhar (Juwaynī, for
example, offered several definitions, including ìthat which occupies space,î
ìthat which has volume [ḥajm],î and ìthat which receives accidentsî)45 the basic
idea seems to hold that, within kalam, jawhar meant indivisible substance. In any
event, Ghazālīís view is in distinct contrast to the falsafah definition which
affirmed the divisibility of physical entities ad infinitum. This was a fundamental
difference between the schools of kalam and the falāsifah. Ghazālīís teacher, al38
Juwaynī, wrote that
Among the most important foundations of religion (aʿẓam arkān al-dīn) is
denying an infinite regress of temporally created objects (ḥawādith). The
proof (dalāla) for the temporal creation of the world cannot continue to
stand without the establishment of this [premise].46
The kalam denial of the infinite divisibility of the atom was required by their
commitment to the temporal origination of the world and of all material bodies
(which are composed of atoms). To admit the infinite divisibility of an atom
would be to allow the possibility of other kinds of infinite regress, including an
infinite regress of time and causation, which threatened the argument for God as
the origin of temporal matter.
In recent years a debate has emerged over aspects of Ghazālīís view of Godís
causality, and though much of the evidence used in the various readings and
arguments derives from the second part of the Iqtiṣād and is therefore somewhat
outside the scope of this study, a brief overview of the issues is warranted. For
though the minutiae of the arguments have to do with Godís causality, the larger
issue is whether Ghazālī owed greater allegiance to the Ashʿarite school of kalam
or to the peripatetic school of the falāsifah. Richard Frank first raises the subject in
a 1991 monograph entitled Creation and the Cosmic System where he argues that
39
Ghazālī, while rejecting certain tenets of Avicennan-style philosophy,
nevertheless seems to adopt the falsafah position on matters that are even more
fundamental, such as whether God is or is not the direct cause of every event,
regardless of any appearance to the contrary (such as the regular operation of
forces in nature, the actions of angels or humans, etc.). The Ashʿarite
occasionalist position held staunchly that God is the direct cause of every event,
but Frank adduces evidence that Ghazālī tacitly did not hold this, concluding
that
from a theological standpoint, most of the [falsafah] theses which [Ghazālī]
rejected are relatively tame and inconsequential compared to some of
those in which he follows the philosopher.47
This position was elaborated further by Frank in a second book, Al-Ghazālī and
the Ashʿarite School, to which further reference is made in the notes to the
translation.
To this position (particularly as first put forward in Creation and the Cosmic
System) Marmura has responded with a careful and well-informed analysis of the
evidence from Ghazālīís oeuvre. He has shown that Frankís critical points in
Creation and the Cosmic System are based either on questionable readings in the
40
original, on prejudiced translations of his own, or on ambiguous passages that
might be interpreted one way or another but where Ghazālīís established pattern
of thought would argue for the reading that Frank wants to overthrow.48 Further
evidence that in Al-Ghazālī and the Ashʿarite School Frank continues to read
Ghazālī as a sometime crypto-Aristotelian, a theory that he attempts to buttress
with sometimes forced and even inaccurate readings, is offered in the notes to
the translation of the first proposition.49
The Second and Third Propositions
In the second and third propositions Ghazālī argues for the eternity of God a
parte ante and a parte post respectively. His discussion of proposition two (35.4ñ
11) is very brief, based on the argument that if God is the origin of the world he
must have no beginning himself or else he would in turn have an originator and
so on ad infinitum. Based on this same argument, Ghazālī adds that Godís
preeternity is essential and not something superadded to his nature (as the
attributes are).
The third proposition, on Godís eternal duration is more involved, in part
because Ghazālī draws up the discussion to include the quarrel with the
41
Muʿtazilites over whether nonbeing is a positive reality in the same sense as
being, and again because he pauses (37.5) to set forth his occasionalist doctrine of
substances and accidents being continually originated and annihilated in their
essence, in contrast to God, whose essence is to be and to remain from eternity to
eternity. As Dhanani has shown, the occasionalism of the Ashʿarites, which we
find alive and well in Ghazālīís writings, seems to be based on a ìlatticeî model
wherein not only space, but also time is composed of minimal units that are not
susceptible of any further division, much like matter is composed of irreducible
substances (atoms). On this model, from instant to instant God is continually
creating and annihilating the substances that constitute the world. Something
that is said to be at rest is really a new version of that thing from instant to
instant, created by God with substances appearing same arrangement, filling the
same places in the lattice as the ones previous, which have just been annihilated.
Something in motion is undergoing the same process of continual creation and
annihilation of its component substances (atoms), only these are created by God
in cells of the lattice that are contiguous to the cells where the substance existed
in the previous instant. The strong determinism of the occasionalist model entails
42
problemsóincluding such fundamental questions as the meaning or purpose of
anythingís existence other than God, the meaning of human agency, and the
notion of possible worlds (if God annihilates and originates everything instant by
instant, is each instant tantamount to a new world?). A more detailed and careful
analysis of these questions is warranted but lies outside the scope of this survey.
In discussing the pre- and post- eternity of God as aspects of his essence,
Ghazālī differs from his teacher, Juwayini, and the Ashʿarite school more
generally where nearly every aspectówhether positive or negativeóof Godís
existence (and sometimes even his existence) was characterized in one way or
another as attribute. Juwaynī, for example, speaks of essential attributes (ṣifāt
nafsiyya) and conceptual attributes (ṣifāt maʿnawiyyah). He does not discuss Godís
existence as an attribute because, as he says, ìexistence is the essence itself.î50
However, among the essential attributes, Juwaynī says, are Godís pre-eternity,
omnipotence, difference from contingent beings, and oneness.51 Significantly,
Juwaynī holds that Godís post eternity, rather than being an essential attribute
like Godís pre-eternity, is not an attribute additional to Godís essence but is
identical with his continued existence. In this he, too, departed from the usual
43
Ashʿarite position which held that Godís post-eternity was a conceptual attribute
like knowledge and power. But Juwaynīís position here seems problematic
within the context of his own thought. In arguing that post-eternity is not an
attribute, he says that ìif we accepted such an eternal attribute, it would also
necessarily be pre-eternal, and this leads to an infinite regressî52 which then begs
the question as to why he has already characterized Godís pre-eternity as an
attribute. Ghazālī avoids these and other problems by establishing a more
consistent position with respect to Godís pre- and post-eternity and by
(apparently) using the criteria of what applies to Godís existence as the way to
differentiate between aspects of his essence and the attributes that are applied to
him. The difference is between aspects (or concepts relating to) Godís existence
and the accidents that pertain to him not just his existence. This difference might
be best expressed in terms of the language that must be used to apply the various
concepts to God. Thus, for example, God is eternal (or, his existence is eternal);
he is noncorporeal (or, his existence is noncorporeal); and he is visible (his
existence is visible), etc.; but God does live, does speak, does will, etc. and it is not
his existence that does these things, but God himself. The aspects of his existence
44
are affirmed of what he is, the accidents are affirmed of what he does. More will
be said on this subject below, in the concluding section of the introduction.
However much is said on this subject, though, the problem remains that Ghazālī
himself does not explicitly explain why he has made the distinctions he has and
taken such a different approach to the question of Godís essence and attributes
than any of his predecessors.
The Fourth through Eighth Propositions
The next three propositions Ghazālī discusses all share in Ghazālīís via
negativa approach, denying any physical aspect of God. Thus, God is neither
substance, body, nor accident as those terms are typically understood. The
argument that God is not body (39.7 ff.) depends on the argument that he is not
substance, which Ghazālī argues in turn based on Godís eternal essence (38.2 ff.),
for if he were to occupy space (as he would by definition if a substance or body),
he would be subject to movement or rest, which are temporal in essence and
therefore have nothing to do with God.
The proposition that God is not accident (40.2 ff.) relies in turn on the claim
that accident by definition cannot exist independently of a substrateóthat is,
45
something that is essentially body or corporeal substance. Again the semantic
definition of the terms is critical, and Ghazālī allows that if accident is taken to
mean an attribute that has no temporal or corporeal basis, the nature of the
argument shifts from one about whether God has attributes (called accidents) to
one about whether such attributes apply to his essence or are additional to it
(40.9 ff.). Given these parameters, Ghazālī still opts for the via negativa, denying
any attribute of Godís essence but allowing that attributes may be superadded to
the divine essence.
With the seventh proposition (41.2) Ghazālī continues his contention that
there is no spatial aspect to God: He is neither ìupî nor ìdown,î nor on any
other ìside,î if these terms are taken to refer to three dimensional space.
Furthermore, God is no ìstateî residing in any corporeal substance (such as the
celestial spheres?)53 whereby he would be in any or all of their spatial sides. Thus
this claim, too, is based on those preceding itóspecifically, that God is not body
and God is not accident.
In reply to questions about what must therefore be the meaning of facing the
qibla or bowing to the dust if God is in no particular place (44.3 ff.), Ghazālī
46
digresses into a lucid explanation of the spiritual reasons for such revealed
requirements. It may be that such sections as this by Ghazālī are part of the
reason he opined of the Iqtiṣād that it brought men closer to the gates of gnosis
than other works of kalam. At least, Ghazālī attributes the aptness of his
discussion to the virtue of seeing beyond the superficial and delving ìmore
deeply into the mysteries of the hearts.î It is a discussion much like those found
in the Ihyaʾ, which he was to compose only after a long period of personal
cleansing and meditation.
Ghazālī then resumes the discussion of God having no spatial aspect and
reiterates an argument, the premises of which he has previously established.
Every being that occupies place is temporal; every temporal being ultimately
requires a nontemporal agent for its existence; therefore, there must be a being
that does not occupy place. The conclusion is based on the equivalence of
temporality and dimensionality. If what exists in time and space must ultimately
be traced to an originator devoid of either, and if God is that originator, then God
must be devoid of any temporal or spatial aspect.
Finally, in response to another objection, Ghazālī offers some statements on
47
the conceivability and intelligibility of God (49.8 ff.).54 God, he says, cannot be
fully comprehended by the limited, human mind, but his existence and other
aspects of his essence can be shown through logical proofs.
Ghazālīís final move down the via negativa is to address certain problems
raised for his positions by the anthropomorphic imagery of the Qurʾan. In this he
followed the model of his teacher in kalam, al-Juwaynī, though the kind of
arguments he offers are different from Juwaynīís in significant ways.55 Ghazālī
specifically singles out the imagery of God sitting upon a throne for discussion in
this, his eighth proposition (50.15 ff.).
Invoking the points he has just made about God having no spatial or
temporal aspect (including accident), Ghazālī argues against the literal
interpretation of God sitting on a throne. He must then offer an alternative
explanation for the meaning of such passages as indicate that God has any kind
of relation to temporal or spatial objects (51.7 ff.). It is in this context that Ghazālī
becomes most explicit about his doctrine of withholding intellectual or
allegorical interpretations of the sacred texts from the common person and only
imparting them to those who are intellectually capable of receiving them. Here
48
he is referring to any problematical, anthropomorphic allusion that someone
might ask about, not just those about the sitting on the throne.
As for his own position, Ghazālī says a proper response ìshould conform to
what some of the forefathers (salāf) saidî (52.4). The dictum Ghazālī reports from
the ìforefathersî is: ìThat he is seated is known, in what manner (al-kayfiyya) is
not known. . . .î Asinís translation of this passage has Ghazālī naming the author
of the quote here as Mālik ibn Anas. Asinís basis for doing this is uncertain on
one level at least, since none of the manuscript traditions name Mālik but simply
refer to ìsome of the forefathers.î On the other hand, it is possible that Ghazālī,
though a Shāfiʿī jurist, did have Mālik or someone of the school named for him
in mind here, for it conforms to the early traditionist reading attributed variously
to the Ḥanbalites or to Mālik, who wrote that ìGod sits on His Throne (istiwāʾ),
descends towards the earth, has eyes, has a hand, because the text says so. But no
one knows the acceptation given by God to these terms.î56 Thus, Malīk and his
followers refused to interpret the texts in any way, while the Muʿtazilites did so
liberally, using metaphorical analogy and philology to rationalize the meaning of
anthropomorphic passages. The early Ashʿarites accepted the attitude of Mālik
49
and formalized their position in the bi lā kayfa doctrine, which stated that the
anthropomorphic language of the revelations was to be accepted as true without
speculating how, it nevertheless being understood that it had to be true in some
way other than the literal sense of God having a body. But, as Gardet observes,
another position later was admitted into kalam thought, this time from the
unlikely quarters of the Muʿtazila and the falāsifa. This was
a metaphorical interpretation into which allegory may creep, if need be,
and which comes very close to the Muʿtazilite legacy, with the following
differences: 1) the attitude of the ìancientsî is regarded as valid. . . ; 2)
only the specifically anthropomorphic passages are accepted as
metaphors; where the ìapparentî (ẓāhir) sense would lead to a real
impossibility. . . .57
One of the early ìmodernsî or proponents of this idea was Ghazālīís own
teacher, al-Juwaynī,58 and it is clear from the Iqtiṣād and later treatises such as the
Miskhāt and especially the very late work Iljām al-awwām that Ghazālī adopted
this line of thought and maintained it throughout his life. In the chapter under
consideration here (at 53.3 ff.), Ghazālī offers metaphorical interpretations of a
number of Qurʾanic verses and prophetic sayings of Muḥammad before
returning to the original topic of God seated upon the throne (at 55.8 ff.), which
he also interprets metaphorically. This is one of the lengthiest sections of the
50
entire Iqtiṣād. Ghazālī gives numerous examples and discusses in considerable
detail how the correct interpretation of several of them is derived. All of this
would indicate that Ghazālī was committed to further establishing this
ìmodernî approach to exegesis of the Muslim canon. Iljām al-awwām, contains
the fullest development of his metaphorical readings of the anthropomorphic
passages, and a comparison between that work and this section of the Iqtiṣād
would undoubtedly be a valuable contribution.
The Ninth Proposition
With the ninth proposition (60.9 ff.) Ghazālī makes a significant departure
from the via negativa and offers another positive argument that is striking and
curious in its own right, particularly in light of the discussion just concluded.
There, Ghazālī had advocated and demonstrated the uses of metaphorical
interpretation when confronted with anthropomorphic passages referring to the
being of God. Now, however, with respect to Godís visibility, he strenuously
resists doing so and specifically opposes the Muʿtazilites who do employ taʾwil
(metaphorical interpretation)59 rather than allow that God might be visible in
some straightforward sense of that term. Ghazālī is attempting to show that God
51
is ìvisible in his being, by the existence of his essence and not by reason of some
of his acts or attributes.î It is because Ghazālī affirms that God is visible by his
essence, by virtue of being an existent, that he sees fit to include it here in this
first section of his treatise, which is dedicated to explaining the essence of God.
The critical qualifier Ghazālī posits in this case is that it is possible to see God,
because he is real and all real beings are by definition visible and cognizable in
some sense at least. However, that God is potentially visible does not necessarily
imply that any vision of him has actually taken place or will take place for any
given potential ìviewer.î
Ghazālī begins by offering two arguments to show that it is logically possible
that God is visible (61.8 ff.). The first argument is a line of reasoning which states
that it is appropriate to affirm of God the same things that are affirmed of any
other being except those qualities or attributes that are specific to
temporal/spatial beings. God is cognizable just as other beings are, and ìvision
is a kind of knowledge that does not imply any kind of alteration in the attributes
of the object that is seen, nor does it suggest temporality; therefore, [the
possibility of vision with respect to God] must be admitted just as with respect to
52
every other being.î
To the objection that what is visible must be spatial/corporeal, Ghazālī makes
several replies. First is an argument from silence: Just because we have no
experience of a being that is visible despite being without extension or location
does not prove the impossibility of such (and after all, it is only possibility that
Ghazālī claims for the visibility of God). Next is the argument that since most
everyone agrees that God can see himself and the world, he must be visible, and
this argument is buttressed or complicated, as the case may be, with a lengthy
and somewhat inconclusive digression on the example of a man who sees
himself in a mirror. Ghazālī does not get down to the physics of how a person
does actually see himself in the mirror. Rather, he simply agrees with his
opponent in disallowing several would-be explanations, but then disagrees with
him in his contention (65) that ìif I am not in front of myself I cannot see myself.î
The unstated conclusion is that the opponent may not be able to explain how he
sees himself, or his various explanations may be incorrect, but the fact of what he
sees remains. This line of explanation might therefore be understood as another
use, albeit a very tacit one, of the bi lā kayf doctrine.
53
Next Ghazālī turns to the evidence from revelation that God has been seen
(65.8 ff.) even if this cannot be taken in the same sense as seeing a corporeal
substances with accidents. To explain how this might be so, Ghazālī proposes to
discuss all of the different possible meanings ìvisionî might have, and eliminate
those which cannot be applied a the vision of a being without body or accidents.
Then, he says,
if there should remain of those meanings one that is not incompatible with
the essence of God most high and that can be called ìvisionî in all truth,
then we shall affirm it with respect to God most high and we shall
conclude that he is truly visible. On the other hand, if it is not possible to
use the name ìvisionî except in a metaphorical sense, then we shall use
that word when revelation enjoins us to, but understanding it in the sense
that reason indicates to us that it should be understood.
In other words, Ghazālī wants, if possible, to claim a more literal reading for the
word ìvisionî than the Muʿtazilites do. They take it metaphorically in some way,
but Ghazālī, if he can, would prefer to find a commonly accepted meaning of the
word ìvisionî that will allow him to say that God isóin that sense, at leastó
truly visible. Failing that, he says, he will settle, as the Muʿtazilites before him,
for a metaphorical interpretation. This passage is thus a valuable summary of
Ghazālīís exegetical methodology. The language of revelation should be taken at
54
face value wherever possible. However, the constraints of what is possible in that
regard are supplied by logical reasoning. When the plain meaning of the
language of revelation is determined to be logically impossibleógiven the
premises upon which that logic is constructedóthen a metaphorical rather than
literal interpretation of the revelation may be warranted.
Ghazālī begins by noting that the eye is not the only organ of the body that is
commonly said to be capable of vision; the heart and the mind are also (66.10).
Next, he shows that the object of vision may be any of a number of things or a
combination thereof and so there is nothing essential to vision in its object.
ìThus,î he concludes, ìthe basis upon which the word ìvisionî depends will be.
. . the reality of the meaning without any relation to its subject [that is, its locus in
the viewer] or its objectî (67.5). The question of what the ìrealityî of vision is,
then, Ghazālī answers by comparing it, using examples, to imagination. He says
that vision is more complete and perfect than something that is merely imaged or
conceptualized within the soul through imagination. It is more exact and more
immediate than latent knowledge. The vision is ìknowledge most perfect and
clearî and as such
55
is not granted in this world because the soul, preoccupied in the
governance of the body, its native purity and cleanliness tainted by the
impurities of the world, is hindered as though by a veil from having such
perception.60
Ghazālī concludes that once the soul is freed from the body, its temporal
attachments, and veils of misunderstanding, it should be able ìseeî God in this
sense.
Having shown that there is, in fact, a proper sense of the word ìvisionî that
can be applied to human knowledge of God, Ghazālī next turns to the revelations
(69.14) to show that they do not rule out the vision of God according the meaning
he has posited. Then he discusses the position of other sects on this question
(72.11 ff.). The Hashwiyya are basically corporealists, which presumably solves
the problem of Godís visibility for them, butófrom the ìorthodoxî perspectiveó
at the considerable expense of tashbih, conceiving of God in terms comparable to
human. Of greater interest is Ghazālīís attitude towards the Muʿtazilites whom
he accuses of ìopenly contradict[ing] the revealed doctrine on this point.î In
their fervor to avoid anthropomorphism, he says, they have taken the via negativa
(tanzih) too far by unnecessarily denying the visibility of God. This is another
significant point of disagreement between Ghazālī and both the Muʿtazilites and
56
the falāsifah, one that must be taken into account by those who would argue that
Ghazālī was a committed though cagey Aristotelian.61
A passage, from the Faysal, throws several elements of this section into
greater relief. Ghazālī sets forth a ìrule for figurative interpretationî in which he
enumerates a succession of levels of interpretation that ought to be observed
when considering problematical passages. His rule states that
the permissibility of engaging in figurative interpretation is contingent
upon having established the logical impossibility of the apparent meaning
(ẓāhir) of a text. The first level of apparent meaning corresponds to
ontological (dhātī) existence. Whenever this is conceded, the remaining
levels are entailed. If this proves (logically) impossible, however, one
moves to the level of sensory existence (hissī), for it too embraces those
levels below it. If this proves impossible, one moves to the level of
conceptual (khayālī) or noetic (ʿaqlī) existence. And if this proves
impossible, one moves to the level of analogous, allegorical existence (alwujūd
al-shabahī al-majāzī).
Now, no one is permitted to move from one level (of interpretation) to
a level beneath it without being compelled by logical proof (burhān). Thus,
in reality, the differences among the various parties revert to (differences
regarding) logical proofs. In other words, the Ḥanbalite says that there is
no logical proof affirming the impossibility of the Creator being specified
by the direction of ìabove.î62 And the Ashʿarite says that there is no
logical proof affirming the impossibility of the beatific vision. In other
words, it is as if each party is simply dissatisfied with the justification
adduced by its opponent and does not deem it to constitute a definitive
proof. But however the matter may be, neither party should brand its
opponent an Unbeliever simply because it deems the latter to be mistaken
in what it holds to be a logical proof.63
57
Significantly, Ghazālī includes the matter of the vision of God as an example of a
question over which there could be disagreement as to how to logically approach
it. The fact that the Muʿtazilites err in denying the reality of the vision of God,
Ghazālī elaborates, merits them the charge of innovation. But the fact that this
error poses no immediate danger to the community of believers and because the
proof that is adduced (by any party, presumably) ìis not decisive but leads to a
more probable conjectureî exempts them from the charge of unbelief.64 Though
Ghazālīís criteria for innovation or unbelief are stated with greater clarity in the
Fayṣāl,65 and his tone there is more conciliatory than it is in the Iqtiṣād, still
nothing he says here would seem to contradict his later position as to what
constitutes unbelief, innovation, and so forth. Ghazālī disagrees strongly with the
Muʿtazilies, but he still allows that they are believers in contrast to the falāsifah,
whom he declared to be unbelievers in the Tahāfut, a position he also reiterates
later in the Iqtiṣād and which he maintained throughout his career.66
The Tenth Proposition
In the tenth proposition (73.9 ff.) Ghazālī aims to show what it means to say
that God is one in his essence. He argues that God can have no peer since he is by
58
definition the originator of all things and there cannot be two such beings,
otherwise the very notion of a truly supreme being becomes meaningless.
Meaningless also is any argument that God is more than one in his essence or
attributes since that would mean that he is identical to himself (since, by
definition, there can be no being greater than himself), and being identical in
every respect means to have no distinguishable duality or plurality. Ghazālī
wields this argument also to counter the suggestion that two creators might have
cooperated in the creation of the world. He argues that any being with power to
create the heavens could also create the earth and anything else, therefore any
being with absolute power and of the essence previously posited would be
indistinguishable from and therefore identical to another such being. Therefore
there must only be one such being. The next suggestion is that there might be
two creators, one of substances, one of accidents, and that they cooperate in
creation. This Ghazālī counters by saying that since substances and accidents
require each other for actualization, there might arise a case in which one creator
would be compelled by the other in bringing something into existence, or
conversely, the one might frustrate the creative intention of the other.
59
One might take a number of further exceptions to the line of reasoning
developed by Ghazālī in this chapter. For another example it might be suggested
that there are two creators, but what distinguishes them is an ontological,
essential difference, even though they are absolutely equal in power and even
will, which will is to act cooperatively, one agent refraining from some aspect of
creative action (of which he is nevertheless fully capable) in order to
accommodate that very action on the part of the other. Ghazālī, we suppose,
might make any of several replies to this. First, he might say it defies
comprehension that two ontologically distinct beings of universal power and
dominion should be distinguishable one from another. It is absurd. Second,
Ghazālī could contend that even if this proposition is granted (if the judgment
that it is absurd is suspended and we allow that there may be two such beings,
though we cannot say how), then it must also be admitted that there may be
more than two such beings, and that, in fact, there may be an infinite number of
them, and this is another absurdity. Finally, Ghazālī would have recourse to the
plain meaning of the revealed word, the Prophetic utterances, and the
unanimous consensus of the ahl al-haq, to whit, that God is one and that this must
60
be understood in an absolute sense: he is the only one of his unique kind. This is,
in fact, the kind of step that he does take at the conclusion of the chapter when he
quotes Qurʾan 21:22 to the effect that ìif there were in both [the heavens and
earth] other gods besides God, [surely both] would be destroyed.î It is ultimately
upon the basis of authority that Ghazālī rests his contention of the oneness of
God, saying ìnothing exceeds the Qurʾan in clarityî (79.5).
With that Ghazālī concludes the first part of the Iqtiṣād, treating the essence of
God. In the next section he will deal with the attributes that apply (being superadded)
to Godís essence. These are the seven attributes that are typically posited
of God: knowledge, power, will, life, sight, hearing, and speech. Ghazālīís
treatment of these topics is beyond the scope of this study, but it still appropriate
here to inquire as to the difference between the attributes enumerated there and
the essence just discussed. What criterion is Ghazālī using to distinguish between
what is essential and what is superadded to the divine essence?
Ghazālī on the Essence of God
There are a number of questions to be asked of the first chapters of the Iqtiṣād,
not the least of which is, What did Ghazālī understand to be the essence of God?
61
This would seem to be a question that ought to have a straightforward answer,
since the entire first part of the treatise is devoted to that one topic, to whit: God
exists, is eternal a parte ante, is everlasting, is not atom, is not corporeal, is not
accident, is not bounded, has no spatial locus such as a throne, is visible in the
sense of being cognizable, and is one. However, when we ask what it is about
these propositions that relates them uniquely to Godís essence, it becomes
difficult to articulate a defining criteria. And when these propositions are
juxtaposed with those from the next part of the Iqtiṣād, dealing with Godís seven
cardinal attributes, the problem becomes more complex still.
It might be that this is a problem larger than Ghazālī. After all, in writing the
Iqtiṣād he was following in a tradition that had been established by previous
theologians of his Ashʿarite school and which, at the very least, he could not
dismiss lightly. But as has already been noted, Ghazālī was not an uncritical
Ashíarite. Even before he chose the path of the Sufi and in the Iqtiṣād itself he
showed that he was prepared to set aside convention or go beyond it when it
suited his purpose to do so. Therefore, absent any compelling reason not to, we
must in fairness take what we are given in the Iqtiṣād to be genuine Ghazālī,
62
reflective of his actual beliefsóat least to that point in his careeróhowever much
it might resemble the work of others before him.
The Arabic term I am translating as ìessenceî also deserves attention at this
point. Is ìessenceî indeed the right gloss for Ghazālīís use of ìdhātî? A useful
opening discussion of this term is given by Fazlur Rahman in the Encyclopaedia of
Islam. He notes that there are indeed a number of meanings that have come to be
associated with it. In general usage it can mean ìthing,î ìbeing,î ìself,î or even
ìego.î ìBut most commonly,î he says, it ìis employed in the two different
meanings of ësubstanceí and ëessence.íî67 Used in the first of those two senses, he
continues, ìit is the equivalent of the subject or substratum. . . and is contrasted
with qualities or predicates attributed to it and inhering in it.î Used in the other
sense, however, it ìsignifies the essential or constitutive qualities of a thing as a
member of a species, and is contrasted with its accidental attributes.î
I translate dhāt as ìessenceî in the Iqtiṣād because Ghazālī consistently
distinguishes between essence and substance and refers to the latteróthat which
forms the substrate for accidents (ʿaraḍ)óusing the term jawhar, never dhāt. In
addition, he devotes the second part of the Iqdiṣād to a discussion of Godís
63
accidental attributes (arād), juxtaposing them with the characteristics of dhāt, just
as one would expect, given Rahmanís characterization of dhāt as essence.68
Rahman goes on to observe, however, that the meanings of ìessenceî and
ìsubstanceî are sometimes conflated, especially in theological or philosophical
discussions about God, ìbecause essence is regarded as being constitutive of the
substance which is a substance only in so far as it is constituted by this essence.î
The theologians Rahman has particularly in mind, as he points out, are the
Muʿtazila, who, like the falāsifah, but for different reasons than they, denied the
existence of divine attributes and declared God to be ìsimple substance and
simple essence,î basically identifying the two. As will be seen in what follows,
Ghazālī did not subscribe to this view and in fact argued forcefully against it on
the grounds that it simply contradicted the plain meaning of revelation. As a
result, Ghazālī was never tempted to confuse substance and essence, and does
not do so in this work.
The question of what was essential to God and what was distinguishable
from his essence was one to which a number of answers were posed in kalam.
The Muʿtazilites evolved one line of response, the Ashʿarites another. Within the
64
Ashʿarite school, al-Juwaynī developed his own thought on the subject distinct
from that of other Ashʿarites, and Ghazālī, his pupil, here offers yet another
answer to the question.69 These differences were seldom explained or defended
as differences by their various proponents, and Ghazālī offers no straightforward
explanation of the criterion by which he determined the difference between what
was essential and what was superadded to God. However, it seems reasonable to
suggest that the criterion has to do with what may be said of Godís existence as
opposed to what may be said of his activity. The first aspect of Godís essence as
discussed by Ghazālī (that God exists) is a special case in that it is first in a list of
aspects the rest of which refer back to that first premise of Godís existence. That
is, every other aspect of the essence may be formulated as a descriptionó
negative or positiveóof Godís existence70 while none of the attributes can be.
Thus, Godís existence is eternal a parte ante and a parte post, is non-spatial, noncorporeal,
and without accident, is visible, and is one; while it is not said that
Godís existence is powerful, knowing, willing, living, seeing, hearing, or
speaking. These are terms that are said of what God does rather than what he is
and are to be dealt with in the next section of the Iqtiṣād.
65
Notes
1 Hourani, ìRevised Chronology.î
2 Marmura, ìAl-Ghazālī on Bodily Resurrection,î 49ñ51.
3 Watt, ìAl-Ghazālī,î 1040.
4 Hourani, ìRevised Chronology,î 294.
5 Hourani, ìRevised Chronology,î 295.
6 Hourani, ìRevised Chronology,î 294.
7 From Kitāb al-arbaʿīn fī uṣūl al-dīn, (pp. 21ñ2 in the edition by M. M. Abū al-
Ala [Cairo, 1964]). The version here is my amalgam based on translations by
Marmura (ìGhazālī and Ashʿarism Revisited,î 91ñ110) and Abū Zayd (Al-
Ghazālī on Divine Predicates, xxix).
8 Marmura, ìGhazālī and Ashʿarism,î 101.
9 Watt, ìAl-Ghazālī,î 1040.
10 See, however, James T. Monroeís Islam and the Arabs in Spanish Scholarship,
which gives an excellent survey of the field generally and of Asinís work in
particular. See especially pp. 191 ff.
11 See Marmura, ìAl-Ghazālī on Bodily Resurrection,î 296 n. 38.
12 Ghazālīís terminology here includes ìtaqlīdî (uncritical assent to teachings)
and iʿtiqād (belief). The use of these and other important terms within Ashʿarite
contexts has been explored by Richard Frank in ìKnowledge and Taqlīd.î
13 McCarthy, Deliverance, 79, emphasis added.
14 McCarthy, Deliverance, 55.
66
15 McCarthy, Deliverance, 58.
16 This chronology is based on Hourani, ìRevised Chronology,î 294ñ295 and
Ghazālīís own account as given in the Munqīdh.
17 Translation from Jackson, Limits, 112.
18 Translation from Jackson, Limits, 114.
19 These comments have been enriched by suggestions from Bernard Weiss.
20 McCarthy, Deliverance, 22.
21 Watt, Faith and Practice, 28ñ29.
22 This last work was known to the scholastics, having been translated into
Latin at Toledo.
23 Saflo, Al-Juwaynīís Thought, 133.
24 Saflo, Al-Juwaynīís Thought, 133.
25 Cotter, Scholastic Philosophy, 84.
26 Cotter, Scholastic Philosophy, 84.
27 Cotter, Scholastic Philosophy, 84.
28 See Marmura, ìGhazālī on Bodily Resurrection and Causality in Tahāfut
and The Iqtiṣād.î
29 See Marmura, Incoherence, 54 f.
30 My thanks to Peter von Sivers for his insights into this problem.
31 Lazarus-Yafeh, Studies, 251.
67
32 Lazarus-Yafeh, Studies, 253.
33 See the fuller quote and citation above, in the discussion of the second and
third introductions.
34 See Weiss, ìKnowledge of the Past,î 101.
35 Weiss, ìKnowledge of the Past,î 96.
36 Bernard Weiss has discussed Ghazālīís use of this important concept at
length in ìKnowledge of the Past.î For a less nuanced definition of tawātur in the
context of Ghazālīís writings, see Jackson, Boundaries, 47. Jackson translates the
concept as ìdiffuse congruenceî (ibid., 112ñ13).
37 See Weiss, ìKnowledge of the Past,î 93ñ94.
38 Weiss, ìKnowledge of the Past,î 92.
39 Weiss, ìKnowledge of the Past,î 103.
40 Weiss, email correspondence.
41 Marmura, ìAl-Ghazālī on Bodily Resurrection and Causality.î
42 My thanks to Bernard Weiss for his observations on this subject.
43 See Dhanani, ìAl-Ghazālīís Attitude,î 18.
44 Dhanani, ìAl-Ghazālīís Attitude,î 1.
45 Dhanani, ìAl-Ghazālīís Attitude,î 4; Saflo, Al-Juwaynīís Thought, 174‒75.
46 Juwaynī, al-Shāmil, 148, as translated in Dhanani, Physical Theory, 189ñ190.
47 Frank, Creation and the Cosmic System, 86.
68
48 Marmura, ìGhazālian Causes.î
49 See note 150 and, in particular, note 171, herein. For a more systematic
critical treatment of Frankís heavy handed method in Al-Ghazālī and the Ashʿarite
School, see Dallal, ìPerils of Interpretation.î
50 Juwaynī, al-Irshād, 31, as translated in Saflo, Al-Juwaynīís Thought, 130.
51 Saflo, Al-Juwaynīís Thought, 129ñ134.
52 Juwaynī, al-Irshād, 139, as translated in Saflo, Al-Juwaynīís Thought, 148ñ49.
53 Ghazālī gives no example along these lines, but the argument would seem
to be most properly warranted if it is supposed that Ghazālī is responding to the
idea that God might be a celestial body of some kind. If this supposition is
accepted, it still has nothing to imply about whether Ghazālī himself did or did
not subscribe to the emanationist cosmology of the falāsifah.
54 Though also outside of the scope of this study, these statements have
relevance to the discussion of Godís unknowability (or otherwise), for which see,
Burrell, ìUnknowability of God,î and Shehadi, Ghazālīís Unique Unknowable God.
55 For a discussion of the superiority of Ghazālīís methodology here to
Juwaynīís, and itís ground-breaking rigor, see Watt, Muslim Intellectual, 120ñ25.
56 L. Gardet, ìAllāh,î 412. See also Abrahamov, ìThe bi-lā kayfa Doctrine,î for
a discussion of its possible origins.
57 L. Gardet, ìAllāh,î 412ñ13.
58 L. Gardet, ìAllāh,î 412.
59 By using taʾwīl, Gardet says, the Muʿtazilites could deny the vision of God
without contradicting the Qurʾan. (See L. Gardedt, ìAllāh,î 412; and D. Gimaret,
69
ìMuʿtazila,î 792.)
60 68.12 ff.
61 This would be particularly true if this doctrine turns out to be original to
Ghazālī (and not just his following pro forma the Ashʿarite position). However,
confronted with this kind of evidence a scholar who holds this view, such as
Richard Frank, would likely dismiss it as unimportant relative to the larger
questions, where, he asserts, Ghazālī aligns himself with the falāsifah. Ghazālī
himself implies that the issue is not of fundamental importance when he says it
poses no threat to the Islamic community (see the quotation, below).
62 It will be remembered that Ghazālī treats this question under his seventh
proposition of the Iqtiṣād (41.2 ff.).
63 This passage is based primarily on Sherman Jacksonís translation of the
Faysal (Boundaries, 104) with some words grafted from McCarthy (Deliverance,
135) where his reading is less awkward and closer to the language of my
translation of the Iqtiṣād. McCarthy, however, seems to have struggled to
understand or capture the gist of this passage.
64 Based on the translation in McCarthy, Deliverance, 140.
65 See also the brief discussion of these criteria in the analysis of the second
and third introductions of the Iqtiṣād, above.
66 This point is significant in the context of the discussion that has emerged
over the question of whether Ghazālī subscribed to certain fundamental tenets of
Aristotelian philosophy as propounded by Avicenna et al. See the earlier notice
of this discussion the treatment of Ghazālīís first proposition, above. The same
point is also made by Marmura in his critique of Frankís Creation and the Cosmic
System (ìGhazālian Causes,î 100).
70
67 Rahman, ìDhāt.î
68 It is possible that ìbeingî could also be a tenable translation of dhāt as used
in this work, but the structure of Ghazālīís book makes it clear that he is writing
in the theological vein that deliberately juxtaposed ìessenceî and ìaccidentî on
principle and as a point of argument. Accordingly, I adopt the equivalent English
term most consistently employed in the dialectical idiom: ìessence.î
69 For a detailed discussion of Juwaynīís thought on this subject, see Saflo, Al-
Juwaynīís Thought, 129 ff. For a discussion of the main Ashʿarite position and the
key terms involved see Richard Frank, ìAshʿarite Ontology.î
70 Al-Fārābī used similar language relating essence to existence. As translated
by Abū Zayd, he states, speaking of Godís essence:
There is no existence which is more perfect or prior to His and there is no
existence which is more ancient than His or on the same level, and,
therefore, He could not possibly receive His existence from it; He is totally
different by His essence from anything other than He is. . . . (Al-Fārābī,
Kitāb al-siyāsah al-madaniyyah, ed. F. M. Najjār (Beiruit, 1964), 42ñ3;
translation in Abū Zayd, Divine Predicates, xi.)
[EXORDIUM]71
[1.1; A 23] In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. Upon Him
we depend.72
[1.3] The sheikh, the imam, the proof of Islam, Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn
Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī said (may God sanctify his spirit):73
[1.4] Praise to God who has elected from his choice slaves74 a company of
truth, a people of orthodoxy.75 Out of all the other sects he has specifically
[endowed] them with the qualities of kindness and benevolence. Upon them he
has emanated his guiding light by which he unveiled for them the truths of
religion. He has caused their tongues to speak his proofs, by which he uprooted
the waywardness of the atheists. He has cleansed their mind of satanic
whisperings.76 He has purified their heart of unholy suggestions. And he has
filled their soul77 with the lights of certainty until they penetrated the secrets
brought down by the tongue of his chosen prophet, Muḥammad, chief of all of
the other messengers (the blessings of God be upon him and all his family). They
72
thus came to know the way to reconcile [any] incongruity between the
requirements of revelation78 and the demands of reason. Indeed, they have
confirmed that there is no contradiction between the revelation of tradition and
the truth of reason. They have come to know that those among the Ḥashwiyya79
who believe in the necessity of rigid adherence to imitative belief80 [A 24] and the
outward form of religion only do so because of [their] poverty of intellect and
shortsightedness of vision. [1.12] And those among the falāsifah81 and the
inordinate Muʿtazilites,82 who so commit themselves to the use of reason such
that they end up clashing with the definitive pronouncements of revelation, do
so out of the wickedness of their minds. Thus, the former group tends toward
negligence, the latter toward excess, and both are far from prudence and caution.
Indeed, the norm that must needs be followed in principles of belief is
moderation and restraint upon the straight path,83 and anything that deviates
from the proper intent of things is reprehensible.
[2.1] How can someone establish a proper course who is content blindly to
accept traditions and reports84 while ignoring the methods of investigation and
theoretical reflection?85 Could it be that he does not know that reason has no
73
other basis besides the sayings of the Chief of Men86 and that intellectual
demonstration is what shows the correctness of his report? And, how can
someone be guided aright who [A 25] only follows reason and nothing more,
without being illuminated by the light of revelation87 and without considering
[it]? For, let us come to terms: how can he flee to reason when he is exposed as so
feeble and full of limitations? Could it be that he does not know that the capacity
of reason is very meager and that its sphere of action is narrow? O how one falls
short and trails behind in misguided paths when one does not bring together
these differences of reason and revelation! For reason is like healthy sight that
has no ailments or flaws, and the Qurʾān is like the sun that shines abroad.
[2.8] How shabby it would be for you to seek guidance from those who were
lacking in one or another of these two, being in the throes of ignorance. For,
someone who declines to use reason, being satisfied with just the light of the
Qurʾān, is like someone who stands in the light of the sun with his eyes shut.
There is no difference between that person and someone who is blind. For,
reason, together with the Qurʾān, ìis light upon light.î88 Someone who has his
eye trained exclusively on only one of these two will remain bound in delusion.
74
[2.12] It will become evident to you, O seeker of instruction in the
fundamental dogmas of the Sunnis, who demands to know their verification
through decisive proofs, that the ability to achieve consistency between reason
and its implementation is to be found in only one sect, which is this [the Sunni]
sect. I thank God most high that he has caused you to follow in their footsteps
and affiliate with the community of their order,89 [A 26] to enter into their
abundance90 and join company with their sect. For, perhaps in this way you will
be able to be resurrected among their ranks on the day of reckoning.
[3.1] We ask God most high to cleanse our souls of the stains of error and that
he will illuminate our souls with the light of truth; that he will cause our tongues
to be silent rather than to speak words of falsity, and cause them to utter words
of truth and wisdom. For, he is bounteous in the effusion of his grace and replete
with mercy! [3.3]
75
Notes
71 I adopt this heading from Asin, who used it aptly to designate this section
[1.1ñ3.3] in which Ghazālī makes perambulatory comments prior to his formal
introduction. It praises those who hold to the truth and reproaches those who
have gone astray. It also introduces the theme of walking a middle road between
extremes in religious views.
72 The various manuscripts present several different invocations here, and D
omits it altogether.
73 Asin omits this line, following manuscripts D and J. Such an honorific
phrase could well be a later addition.
74 The term ʿibādihi is often translated more palatably as ìhis servants,î but
ìhis slavesî is not too strong and may in fact be more apt given Ghazālīís
acceptance of the traditional Ashʿarite belief in Godís omnipotence and total
authority over human action. In this rendering of the passage, then, I take
Ghazālī to mean all of humanity when he speaks of Godís slaves, not just Muslim
believers, as might be implied if the term ìservantsî were used here instead. It is
thus out of the totality of humanity that ìa company of the truth, a people of
orthodoxyî are chosen, by which Ghazālī therefore intends all Sunni Muslims,
not just an elite and learned subset of them.
75 This translation of ahl al-sunna follows what would have been intended by
Ghazālī. It could be more literally rendered as ìpeople of custom.î Except where
context demands otherwise (as it does here), I will use the anglicized form of the
Arabic term: the Sunnis.
76 Wasāwis. Al-Ghazālī much later devoted a chapter of his ʿAjāʾib al-qalb (in
the Iḥyaʾ) to the significance of this term from a primarily Sufi standpoint.
77 For lack of better terms, I have resorted to ìmind,î ìheart,î and ìsoulî here
to refer to the spiritually perceptive faculties denoted by Ghazālīís sarāʾir,
76
damāʾir. and ifʾadah. But it should be noted that he seems to be avoiding the more
pregnant terms of ʿaql, qalb, ruḥ, or nafs that these glosses most frequently
indicate. For a discussion of the specialized meanings of these last for terms, see
again his ʿAjāʾib al-qalb, first bayāan or ìexpositionî (this section available in
McCarthyís translation in appendix 5 of Deliverance, 310 ff.).
78 Shariʿah: this often refers to the code of Islamic law that is derived from the
Qurʾān and the sayings of the prophet Muḥammad. As such, it contains
prescriptions for human action which are based upon revelation (as opposed to
originating from pure reason or custom). In the context of this work, however,
Ghazālī seems most consistently to be using the term in the broader sense of
revelationóspecifically revelation given through Muḥammadórather than just
the legal code that has been constructed from it. See the discussion of sharʿ,
below.
79 Al-ḥashwiyya: These were a traditionalist theological school who accepted as
literal the anthropomorphist language of the Qurʿan, much likeóand indeed
sometimes identified withóthe Hanbalite school. See also Asin, Justo Medio, 23;
and A. S. Halkin, ìThe Hashwiyya.î Al-Ghazālī makes further reference to them
at 72.11, below.
80 Taqlīd: For an important discussion of this term, see Lazarus-Yafeh, ìSome
notes on the term ëtaqlīdí in the writings of al-Ghazzālī,î appendix B in Studies in
al-Ghazālī, p. 488 ff. He says that Ghazālīís use of the term influenced many
theologians after him. He summarizes Ghazālīís usage of taqlīd generally to
indicate
blind adherence to, or following, ancestral tradition and pronouncements
by teachers, without independent examination, meditation and reflection.
It has a distinctly negative, derogatory connotation, and appears as the
contrary to the faith which is founded on examination and study or
77
personal religions experienceî (488‒89).
81 These were Muslim thinkers such as al-Fārābī and Avicenna who saw
themselves as inheriting and carrying on the Aristotelian tradition of logical
reasoning about matters of ultimate importance. This is the same group, of
course, who were targeted in Ghazālīís famous Tahāfut al-falāsifah (Incoherence of
the Philosophers). As with mutakalimūn, I choose not to translate this term in
favor of adopting it for its own precise use in this text.
82 In his note at this point, Asin calls the Muʿtazilites ìthe most liberal
theologians of Islam, strongly associated with the philosophers.î
83 Ghazālīís language here recalls the title of this work and of Qawaʿid alaqa
ʿid. See my further comments in the introduction.
84 Al-athar wa al-khabar: ìEvidences and reports.î Here Ghazālī is referring
chiefly to the canonical sources of Islamic law: the Qurʾanówhich is an evidence
of Godís intervention in human affairs and of Muḥammadís prophetic callingó
and the sunna or practices of the Prophet Muḥammad.
85 Ghazālī is here distinguishing two very different bases for true knowledge:
the one is tradition, which transmits the revealed word of God; the other is
reason. Presumably, though he does not state it explicitly here, Ghazālī
understands this to include all aspects of the inductive process, beginning with a
priori principles and direct observations and ending with proofs and logical
conclusions. At 18.4, below, Ghazālī will detail theoretical reflection (naẓar) as a
syllogistic process.
86 Sayyid al-bashr: This is, of course, is the Prophet Muḥammad.
87 Al-sharʿ: The context of this usage governs how I translate this important
term. Wehr defines it as ìthe Revelation, the canonical law of Islam.î See the
78
discussion of Shariʿah, above.
88 Nūr ʿala nūr: ìLight upon lightî is a quote from Qurʾān 24:35, known as
ìThe Light Verse.î This verse provides one of the themes upon which Ghazālī
elaborated in his later work, Mishkāt al-anwār.
89 Niẓāmihim: At the time he composed this work, Ghazālī was the head of the
great legal and theological university of Niẓām al-Mulk. Called the Niẓamiyya, it
was the bastion of Sunni Islamic thought. Al-Ghazālīís choice of word here
suggests that he was writing not only to Sunni students of jurisprudence, but
specifically to his own students at the Nizamiyya.
90 This phrase might also be rendered as ìcast your lot with them.î
[EXPLANATORY] CHAPTER
[3.5; A 27] Let us begin the dialogue91 by explaining the title of the book and
its division into introductions, parts, and chapters. As pertaining to the name of
the book, it is: Moderation in Belief.92
[3.8] As pertaining to its organization, [this book] contains four introductions,
which constitute prefaces or preambles, and four main parts, which constitute the
aims or objectives [of the book].
[3.10] The first introduction is to show that this science is one of the things
that are important for the faith. The second introduction is to show that it is not
important for all Muslims, but rather for a specific portion of them. The third
introduction is to show that [the study of this science] is an obligation for the
qualified, [A 28] not an individual obligation.93 The fourth introduction analyzes
the methods of proof that I use in this book.
[4.1] As for its main parts, they are four, and all of them taken together reduce
to the study of God most high.
80
[4.2] For if we are to consider94 the world, we will not consider it inasmuch as
it is a world, body, heaven, and earth, but inasmuch as it is a work of God most
high. And if we are to consider the Prophet (peace be upon him), we will not do
so inasmuch as he is a man, noble, wise, and virtuous, but inasmuch as he is a
messenger of God. And if we are to consider his sayings, we will not do so
inasmuch as they are sayings, elocutions, and expressions, but inasmuch as they
derive instruction, through [the prophetic] mediation, from God most high.
Thus, we do not consider anything except about God; and there is no other object
of inquiry save God.95 All the limits of this science encompass theoretical
reflection on the essence96 of God, the attributes of God, the works of God, and
the messenger of God (peace be upon him) along with whatever of Godís
instruction has come to us through the ministering of his tongue. Thus, the basic
parts [of this book] are four:
[4.12] Part One: Considering the essence of God most high. In this part we show:
the existence of God; that he is from eternity; that he is everlasting; that he is
neither substance, body, nor accident; that he is not bounded by any limit; [A 29]
that he is not specified by location; that he is visible even as he is cognizable; and
81
that he is one. These are ten propositions that we will explain in this part, God
most high permitting.
[5.1] Part Two: On the attributes of God most high. In this part we explain that
God is living, knowing, powerful, willing, hearing, seeing, and speaking; and
that he possesses life, knowledge, power, will, hearing, sight, and speech. We
will note the governing rules of these attributes, their requisites, and their
divergent and convergent principles. We will note that all of the [attributes] are
superadded to essence, being eternal and subsistent in essence, and that it is
impossible that any aspect of the attributes is temporal.97
[5.7] Part Three: On the acts of God most high. Here there are seven propositions,
which are: that God most high is not obliged to give [any] commandment to
men, nor to create [them], nor to reward [their compliance with] the
commandments, nor to observe what is best for his servants; that it is not absurd
that God should give commandments that cannot be fulfilled;98 that God is not
obliged to punish sinners; and that it is not impossible for God to send forth
prophets; but that [all of these things] are possible for him. In the introduction to
this part the meanings of the terms obligatory, good, and bad are also explained.
82
[5.12] Part Four: On the messengers of God and what comes [to men] by the
tongue of Godís messenger (may God bless him and give him peace) relative to
the resurrection, heaven and hell, [prophetic] intercession, the punishment of the
grave, and the weighing99 of human actions in the balance, and the path.100 It is
comprised of four chapters. The first chapter establishes [A 30] the prophetic
calling of our Prophet, Muḥammad (may God bless him and give him peace).
The second chapter is on what has been delivered by the tongue of the Prophet
regarding the matter of the hereafter. The third chapter is on the imamate and its
conditions. The fourth chapter explains the canonical criterion101 for declaring the
apostasy102 of the innovating sects.
83
Notes
91 Al-kalām: While not a dialogue in the sense of Platoís dialogues, this treatise
is certainly dialectical in nature. Al-Ghazālī presents arguments to which an
imaginary opponent usually offers objections, allowing Ghazālī to refine his
point or to present counter arguments.
92 Asin at this point opts for a more descriptive title (ìThe use of reason and of
revelation respectively in dogmatic theologyî) than the one Ghazālī actually
gives, stating that ìit expresses with more fidelity and exactness the object and
content of the book, which, as will be seen, is a compendium of dogmatic
theology in which both [rational] proofs and the authority of revelation are used
to demonstrate the truth of Islamic dogmas.î For more on the title and its
translation, see the translatorís introduction.
93 As will become clear in the third introduction (13.3 ff.), Ghazali means by
this that he sees the study of kalam as necessary for the good of the Islamic
community in general; each area needs to have access to experts in theology, but
it is not something that each Muslim needs to be proficient in. In fact, in
Ghazālīís view, that would be undesirable.
94 Naẓara: To view, gaze at, observe.
95 At this point Asin notes that ìcoinciding with this point of view is that of St.
Thomas Aquinas. See Summa, c.g. 1.2.c 4: Quod aliter considerat de creatures
philosophus et aliter theologus; and Summa theol. p. 1a, q. 1.a, a. 7: Utrum Deus sit
subjectum hujus scientiae, where he says: Omnia autem pertractantur in sacra
doctrina sub ratione Dei: vel quia sunt ipse Deus; vel quia habent ordinem ad
Deum, ut ad principium et finem: unde sequitur quod Deus vere sit subjectum
hujus scientiae.
96 Dhāt: what something is in itself; essence.
97 Ḥādith: the root sense is of something episodicóthat is, taking place as an
84
event, as opposed, in this context, to something that is of infinite duration,
without beginning or end.
98 As he does elsewhere in this treatise, in each of these points Ghazālī is
specifically opposing tenets of Muʿtazilite doctrine.
99 Al-Mīzān: The root image is of balancing scales, connoting justice and strict
evaluation, or judgment.
100 Al-ṢirāÅ: Way or path; in this context, each personís walk of life. Asín also
adds ìthe trial of the bridge,î which does not appear in the Arabic but is likely
his amplification on the previous phrase.
101 This is, of course, a reference to the Sharia, which derives its authority from
two canonical sources: the Qurʾān and the Hadith or reported words and deeds
of Muḥammad, and from the consensus of Muslim legal scholars.
102 Takffīr al-farq al-mubtidaʿa.
THE FIRST INTRODUCTION
[6.6; A 31] Explaining that involvement with this science is important for the
faith.
[6.7] Know that to squander attention on something that is of no import and
to waste time on something that has no point to it is the height of error and the
ultimate ruin, whether this has to do with things theoretical or things practical.
God preserve us from the study of useless sciences!
[6.10] The most important thing for the whole of mankind is to obtain eternal
happiness and to avoid endless misery. And prophets have come forth, and they
have informed all creatures103 that God most high imposes duties upon his slaves
and has expectations104 for their actions, their words, and their beliefs. Thus, the
person whose tongue does not speak faithfully, whose spirit does not respect the
truth, and whose bodily members are not adorned with equityóhis end will be
hellfire, and his fate will be destruction.
[6.13] But the prophets have not limited themselves just to delivering this
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message, but they have provided a testimony of their veracity by doing
uncommon acts and wondrous works that break with the habitual course [A 32]
[of nature], far from what is possible for men to do. So when someone has seen
such things, or has heard of their happening through a succession of
corroborative reports,105 the possibility of their veracity occurs to his intellect;106
indeed, it is probable that that thought occurs to him the first time he hears [such
reports, even] before [his] reason is able to discern between genuine miracles and
fabricated wonders. This spontaneous impression and inevitable suggestion are
sufficient to tear peaceful security from the heart and to fill it with fear [7] and
trembling and to move it to study and pondering. [They can] snatch [the heart]
from peace and stillness, and frighten it with the danger to which one is exposed
while living in negligent ease. [They can] convince him that death will surely
come and that what comes after death is hidden from the view of men, and that
what those prophets have said is not at all outside the realm of possibility. The
realistic thing to do is to forsake oneís state of negligence in [an effort] to unveil
the reality of this affair. For, [even] before any inquiry [can be undertaken] to
verify the reality of what the prophets say, the marvels that they have shown in
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[support of] the possibility of their veracity are no less worthy of credit than the
words of some person who informs us that we ought to get out of our house and
fixed dwelling because there is a possibility that a lion has gotten into it, telling
us: ìBeware, and be careful to stay away from it.î [7.7] Upon merely hearing
their warning, upon the mere thought that what that person is saying is [A 33]
within the realm of possibility, we would not step forward to enter the house.
Rather, we would go out of our way to take precautions.
[7.8] Now, death being our destiny and our inevitable homeland, how could
it not be important to take precautions concerning whatever lies beyond it?
Therefore, the most important thing of all will be for us to investigate what [the
Prophet] has said, the possible truth of which the mind avers at first glance and
prior to any theoretical reflection. Might it truth be impossible in itself, or is it an
indubitable truth?107
[7.11] Now, one of the things that the Prophet says is, ìYou have a Lord who
has rightfully imposed certain obligations upon you; and he punishes you for
neglecting them, and he rewards you if you do them. He has sent me as a
messenger to you so that I can make this clear to you.î And so, the obligation is
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incumbent upon us to know whether or not we have a Lord. And if there is a
Lord, is it possible that he is a being endowed with speech such that he can
command and prohibit, impose duties and send messengers? And if he is
endowed with speech, is he powerful so as to be able to punish and reward
according as we disobey or obey him? And if he is powerful, [A 34] then is this
very person truthful in saying, ìI am the messenger sent to youî?
[8.2] And once all of this has become clear for us, we would then undoubtedly
be obligedóif we were rational108óto take our precautions and reflect upon our
souls and despise this transitory world in comparison with that other, everlasting
realm. Thus, the rational man reflects on his destiny and is not deceived by his
own works [here below].
[8.5] Now then, the object of this science is to establish apodictic proof of the
existence of the Lord most high, his attributes, his works, and the truthfulness of
the messengers [he sends], as we specified in the summary. Thus, all of this is
unavoidably important, to any reasonable man.
[8.7] You might say, ìI am not denying this impulse from my soul to find out
[about these things], but I do not know whether it is the result of a natural
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disposition and [my] physical constitution, or whether it is a demand of reason,
or whether it is a duty imposed by the religious law. For, people dispute about
the source of obligations.î
[8.9] This will only be made known at the last part of the book, where we turn
our attention to the source of the obligation. To get involved with this right now
is unproductive. But, there is no other course, once the impulse to find out [about
these things] has occurred, than to instigate a quest for salvation. The person
who turns from that is like the man who is bitten by a viper or a scorpion that is
about to strike again [A 35] and who, though he is able to get away, nevertheless
remains there to see whether the viper has come to bite him on the right or on the
left.109 Such is the doing of fools and imbeciles. God save us from laboring for
that which is of no use while neglecting matters of fundamental importance!
90
Notes
103 Al-khalaq: Literally, ìthe creation,î but the traditional use intends that
portion of Godís creation who are answerable to himóthat is, humanity.
104 Waẓāʾif: I translate this as ìexpectationsî based on the context; but other
glosses, such as ìdispositions,î ìassignments,î or ìappointmentsî are also
possible, conveying again the idea of Godís absolute sovereignty over his
creatures.
105 Bil-akhbār al-mutawātira: Tawātur is a technical term used in hadith criticism.
Difficult to render with any single gloss in English, it carries the sense of ìa
tradition with so many transmitters that there could be no collusion, all being
known to be reliable and not being under any compulsion to lieî (J. Robson,
ìḤadīth,î 325). For a fuller discussion of the concept as used specifically by
Ghazālī, see Weiss, ìKnowledge of the Past,î and the translatorís introduction.
106 The root here (ʿaql) is what in other contexts is translated as ìreason.î
107 Asín has a note at this point which reads:
The topic briefly alluded to here by al-Ghazālī is a theme in nearly all
ascetic works. The passages from the Ihyaʾ, Mizān, and al-Arbaʿin, where
he develops them more fully, can be read in [Spanish] translation in my
section entitled Los precedentes musulmanes del pari de Pascal (Santander,
ìBoletin de la biblioteca de Menendez y Pelayo,î 1920).
108 The Arabic term here, ʿuqalāʾ, is cognate with the important term ʿaql
which I usually translate as ìreasonî or ìintellect.î
109 Asín provides a note at this point which reads, ìThe theme of this analogy
seems to be drawn from that of the legends of Locman [Luqmān?], entitled, La
gacela y el xorro (The gazele and the fox), and El nino que se ahoga (The boy that
91
drowns).î Qurʾān 30, ṣura ìLokman,î is named for a man ìof oldî who is noted
as having received wisdom from Allah and then imparting it to his son. This
might be the same Lokman al-Ḥakīm (ìthe wiseî) of pre-Islamic Arabic tradition
to which Asín is referring, but further investigation of Asínís enigmatic allusion
is warranted. It lies, however, beyond the scope of this study.
THE SECOND INTRODUCTION
[9.2; A 36] Showing that although involvement in this science, is [generally]
important, it is actually not so for certain people; indeed, the important thing for
them is to leave it alone.110
[9.4] Know that the proofs we will be adducing in this science are like
medications by which diseases of the heart are treated. If the doctor that uses
them is not skillful, having keen intelligence and sound judgment, he might do
more harm than good with his medication. Let anyone know, then, who desires
to get some result from the contents of this book and some benefit from this
science, that there are four kinds of people.
[9.9] THE FIRST GROUP had faith in God, acknowledged his messenger, believed
him to be true and cherished him in [their] hearts. They engaged in both the
devout life as well as work with their hands. Such persons ought to be left alone
just as they are, and their beliefs [left unshaken,] by [not] insisting that they
study this science. In fact, the giver of the divine revelation (Godís blessing and
93
peace be upon him) in his discourse with the Arabs never required anything
more of them than [A 37] belief, without distinguishing whether that be faith
through trusting authority,111 or conviction based on apodictic proof.
[9.13] This is one of the things that is known with certainty, because of the
powerful increase in faith among those rustic Arabs who [first] believed [the
Prophet]. It was not through investigations, nor by apodictic proofs, but rather
simply through circumstance or through some sign that passed into their hearts
and moved them to submit to the truth and to believe the truthfulness [of the
Prophetís message]. Thus, those people [in this group] are true believers, and one
must not confound their beliefs. For if the apodictic proofs were to be related to
them along with the difficulties that can be raised in opposition to those proofs,
and the resolution thereof, there is no assurance that one or another of those
problems might not lodge in their mind and seize them, and not be erased by
anything that might be mentioned in order to resolve them. That is why there is
no evidence that the companions of the Prophet ever occupied themselves in the
study of this scienceóneither by personal study, nor by oral teaching, nor by the
editing of works. Rather, their sole occupation was the devout life and inviting
94
others to practice it, exhorting the people to their guidance, their benefits, their
actions, and their [manner of] living.
[10.5] THE SECOND GROUP: This set is comprised of all those who incline away
from belief in the truth, such as the unbeliever and the innovator. The crude and
boorish among themóweak of mind, [A 38] blindly obedient of imitative belief
from his first breath up to his old ageóis helped by nothing but the whip and
the sword. The majority of the unbelievers became Muslim under the shadow of
the sword; for, with the sword and the spear God brings about what does not
come about through proof. That is why, when the pages of history are studied in
detail, one never encounters a fight between Muslims and unbelievers that has
not resulted in a group of the people of error bowing down to the stipulations [of
Islam]. On the other hand, one never encounters a group for theological
discussion and argumentation that has not resulted in an increase of recalcitrance
and obstinacy [among the ignorant].112 And do not think that what we have said
is to close our [eyes] to the [high] estate of reason and its proofs.113 But the light of
reason is a divine gift that God does not bestow except upon a few of his
[choosing] while [most] people struggle in backwardness and ignorance. Such
95
people, due to their insufficiency, do not comprehend the decisions of reason,
just as the light of the sun does not reach the eyes of bats. Such persons would be
hurt by such learning, just as the rosebud is hurt by the beetle. It is like the
saying of al-Shāfiʿī (may God be pleased with him and give him contentment),
ìHe who gives knowledge to the ignorant wastes it. And he who prevents those
who deserve it acts unjustly.î
[11.3] THE THIRD GROUP: This consists of those who believe [A 39] the truth on
the basis of authority and through what they hear; but, endowed as they are with
acumen and perceptiveness, they become aware by themselves of problems that
disturb their faith and shake their confidence. Or some specious sophistry
assailed their ears and lodged within their hearts. It is important to treat these
with benevolence in order to restore their confidence and dissipate their doubts
through whatever arguments are likely to be sufficiently effective for them,
whether through stigmatizing and denouncing [the idea], or by reciting a verse
[from the Qurʾān], or relating a tradition [of the Prophet], or speaking a sentence
from a well-known person whom they hold in esteem. If that much is sufficient
to remove the doubt, then it will not be necessary to address them with proofs
96
written according to dialectic protocols. For such proofs might open other doors
to problems. Now, if we are dealing with someone very perceptive and alert who
will only be content with reasoned arguments that result in settling the dispute,
then it will be appropriate to elucidate a proof of the truth for him; but only to
the extent that it is needed, and on the specific subject of the doubt in question.
[11.14] THE FOURTHH GROUP: This is comprised of people in error in whom
may [nevertheless] be detected signs of acumen and perceptiveness and for
whom it might be expected, therefore, that they will [yet] accept the truth, [12]
whether through their being freed of doubts regarding their beliefs, or because
their hearts are softened [A 40] by those doubts so as to accept [resolution of] the
problems due to their natural disposition and temperament. These should also be
treated with benevolence so as to win them to the truth and guide them to true
belief; not with vehement and fanatic argumentation, for that only increases the
impulse to go astray and arouses a stubborn obstinacy and willfulness. Most
errors take root in the hearts of the common person only because of fanaticism on
the part of some group of ignorant true believers who expound the truth with an
air of confrontation and argumentation, looking upon their weak opponents with
97
contemptuous and disdainful eyes, which causes in their hearts an impulse to be
obstinate and contrary, and so their false beliefs take even deeper root in their
souls. [Thereafter] it is more difficult for kindly disposed ulama to erase those
errors despite the obvious manifestation of their corruption. Fanaticism has even
lead a sect to claim to believe that the words a man pronounces in the present
moment are of everlasting duration, even after he falls silent.114 Were it not for
Satanís seizing control through the obstinacy and fanaticism [of persons] with
heretical whims, such a belief would not be found lodged in the hearts of a
madman, much less in the hearts of intelligent people. Contrariety and [A 41]
obstinacy are quite simply a sickness that has no cure. So let the religious person
guard against them with all care, avoid hatred and rancor, and look upon Godís
creatures with eyes of benevolence. Use gentleness and love as means to guide
fellow believers who are in error, and keep from harshness, which, for one in
error, only stirs the impulse to go [further] astray. Be sure that to arouse the
impulse to willfulness through obstinacy and fanaticism is the thing that will
most surely help [13] willfulness to take root in the soul, and the one responsible
for having lent such ìhelpî will be held to account on the day of judgment.115
98
Notes
110 The editors of the Arabic text at this point have a note that reads,
ìCompare this with what is found in Fayṣal al-tafriqah,î in particular pp. 69ñ71 of
the Cairo 1319/1901 edition.î Ghazālīís final work, Iljām al-ʿawāmm ʿan al-khawḍ
fī ʿIlm al-kalām (Curbing the Masses from Engaging in the Science of Kalam) must
also be mentioned in this regard.
111 Here the idea of taqlīd is used in a positive sense.
112 For some reason Asín omits the rest of the paragraph from this point on.
The ellipses he inserts here indicate that this was deliberate, but I cannot discern
any obvious reason for his decision.
113 Ghazālīís comment here is sometimes read as a critique of all kalam
schools, including even the Ashʿarites, to claiming that they are ineffective at
accomplishing one of their primary objectives, which is to credibly ward off
attacks and to convince detractors of the validity of the Islamic creed. As I read
his statement here, however, Ghazālī seems to be saying simply that even the
most orthodox and intelligent theological minds will not be able to convince
unbelievers and innovators (who are obstinate by nature) of the correctness of a
given position, and that it will be a waste of time to try; but there are other kinds
of persons for whom kalam will be a genuine benefit, thus justifying the position
that it is a duty for the community of believers generally to cultivate experts in
kalam insofar as possible.
114 Asín includes a note at this point which reads: Al-Ghazālī alludes to the
doctrine of extreme orthodox [Sunni ?] theologians who explained the eternity of
the word of Godómeaning the Qurʾānóin such a literal and irrational sense that
they even considered the words of the Quʾānic text pronounced by a man to be
eternal and uncreated. On the history of the aforementioned polemics on this
subject, see Goldziher, Le dogme et la loi de líislam, 93, ff.
99
115 For a broader treatment by Ghazālī of this subject, Asín recommends Iljām
al-ʿawām. Asín treats this material in his La psicología de la creencia según Algazel.
THIRD INTRODUCTION
[13.3; A 42] Explaining that involvement in this science is [only] an obligation
for those who are qualified.116
[13.4] Know that to become immersed in this science and involved in all it
entails is not an obligation for individuals. Rather, it is an obligation for the
qualified.
[13.6] As pertaining to its not being an obligation for individuals, the
demonstration of this would have already become apparent to you in the second
introduction, where it was shown that nothing was obligatory for the common
people except to affirm true conviction and to purify their hearts of all doubt or
uncertainty concerning the faith. So, in reality, arriving at a point where doubt is
eliminated is a duty devolving [primarily] upon the people who are accosted by
doubt [themselves].
[13.9] Someone might say, ìHow can this be an obligation for the qualified
when you previously said that the majority of those classes of people would be
101
harmed by this [study] rather than it benefiting them?î
[13. 11] Know that, as was previously [A 43] stated, to eliminate doubts about
fundamental dogmas is an obligation that ought to be fulfilled. That a doubt
should arise is not impossible, though it happens only rarely except among those
of keen intellect. The call to the truth through rational proof to whoever is
languishing in error and who carries within his intellect the capacity to
understand is of religious importance. Furthermore, it is not unlikely that a
heretical innovator will influence and entice orthodox believers117 into error,
suggesting doubts to them. Therefore it is indeed indispensable that someone
should rise up to unmask his sophistry and put a stop to his enticement by
showing its evil. Now, that [14] cannot happen except by this science. And as
there is no country anywhere that is free from such threats, there must be, in
every region and territory, a defender of the truth who is involved in this science
to stand up to the heretical innovators who are attracting those who are
wavering from the truth and resolve the doubts that arise in the hearts of the
orthodox. If there were no one in the region who could attend to this need, the
inhabitants of an entire region would be in dire straits, just as they would be if
102
there were no doctors or jurists at all. However, if there were no one that
professed either canon law or theology and someone were disposed to study
only one of the two sciences for lack of sufficient time to study both together, and
if we were asked which of the two sciences he ought to choose, we would say
that he [A 44] should study canon law, because the need for it is more general
and there are more cases to be handled in this discipline. For, there is never a
lack of someone day or night who does not need legal counsel, while, by
comparison there is much less frequent need to alleviate dogmatic doubts
through the study of theology. Likewise, if there is no one in the whole country
that practices medicine or cannon law, it would be more important to
concentrate on the study of the jurisprudence, since it is needed by the masses
and common people alike, while the healthy do not need a physician, and the
sick are fewer in number relative to them; the sick person, on the other hand,
cannot do without the jurisprudence, just as he cannot do without medicine,
since the need he has for medicine is to save his mortal life, while he needs the
canon law for his everlasting life, and the difference between those two lives is
substantial.
103
[14.12] When you compare the fruit of medicine with the fruit of
jurisprudence, you can see how great the difference is between the one and the
other. That jurisprudence is the most important of the sciences will be shown to
you in the fact that the Companions of the Prophet applied themselves to its
study in their councils and conferences. Nor should you let yourself be misled by
the high-sounding name given by those who would give primacy to the art of
kalam [A 45] as being the root and jurisprudence one of its branches. It is indeed
correct, but it is still of no use for the topic that presently concerns us. The root,
really, is correct belief and sure faith, which faith is acquired [simply] by
submission to authority and only rarely by resorting to apodictic proofs and
dialectical subtleties. The doctor would also cloud the issue saying, ìYour
existence, your health, the existence of your body rely upon my art. Your life
depends on me. Life and health are the main things; then after that comes
involving yourself with religion.î Nevertheless, the meaning behind these words
of misrepresentation by the sophist is not hidden from anyone, as we have
previously alluded.
104
Notes
116 Farḍ kifāyya: This refers to an obligation within Islam that is incumbent
upon the few who are qualified to perform it for the sake of the community as a
whole.
117 Ahl al-ḥaq, literally, ìthe people of the truthî; this was a common way the
Ashʿarites referred to themselves.
THE FOURTH INTRODUCTION
[15.8] Explaining the methods of proof that we have used in this book
[15.9] Know that there are a variety of demonstrative methods. Some of them
we have already noted in The Touchstone of Theoretical Reflection on Logic, and we
have studied them in greater depth in The Standard of Knowledge.118 But in this
book, we will bypass the abstruse ways and the more obscure methods with the
purpose of seeking clarity, looking for conciseness, and [A 47] trying to avoid
prolixity. We will therefore limit ourselves to studying just three methods.
[15.12] THE FIRST METHOD is disjunctive reasoning.119 It consists of our reducing
the question to just the two parts into which it divides; then we declare one of
them false and deduce from that the affirmation of the other. So, for example, we
say: The world is either temporal or it is eternal; but it is absurd that it should be
eternal; therefore it follows indisputably [16] that it is temporal.120 This is the
necessary conclusion we sought; it is the cognition that we intended to derive
from two other cognitions.121
106
[16.3] One of them is our saying, ìThe world is either temporal or it is
eternalî; for, the judgment resulting from that restriction122 is a cognition.
[16.4] The second of them is our saying, ìIt is absurd that the world should be
eternal.î This is another cognition.
[16.5] The third is the one that necessarily follows from the other two. It is
what we were seekingóthat the world is temporal. No cognition that is sought
can be obtained by any other means than by deduction from two cognitions,
which are its two premises.123 But not just any two premises will suffice. Rather,
it is also crucial that there be a certain connection between the two from a
particular standpoint and under particular conditions. Once the connection is
made according to its condition, it will give rise to a third cognition, the one
being sought. This third cognition we will call a claim when we have an
opponent and desired outcome when we have no opponent, for it is just what is
desired by the one who is making the inquiry. We will [also] call it benefit and
branch because of its relationship to the two root premises;124 for, it results from
both [A 48] of them. No matter what the opponent admits of the two root
premises, he will also necessarily and unavoidably have to admit the branch that
107
derives from both of them, and that is the truth of the claim.
[16.11] THE SECOND METHOD consists of stating the two premises from a
different standpoint, such as when we say, ìEverything that is not devoid of
temporal things is temporal.î This is one premise. ìThe world is not devoid of
temporal things.î This is the other premise. From both of them follows
necessarily the truth of our claim, which is that ìthe world is temporal,î and that
is the desired conclusion.125
[16.15] Consider whether it is possible to imagine that the opponent would
allow the two premises. Then, if it is possible, let him [try to] deny the truth of
the claim, and you will know for certain that that is impossible [for him to do so].
[17.2] THE THIRD METHOD consists of our proposing not to demonstrate the
truth of our claim, but rather to prove the impossibility of the opponentís claim
by showing that it leads to an absurdity and that whatever leads to absurdity
must undoubtedly be absurd.126
[17.5] For example, we could say, ìIf what our opponent affirms were true,
that the revolutions of the sphere have no end, it would necessarily follow that
one would also be stating the truth when he said:
108
[17.6] ìíSomething that has no end has been destroyed and come to an end.í127
But it is well known that this result is absurd; therefore, from this it indubitably
follows that what gives rise to this absurdity is also [itself] absurdóthat is to say,
the thesis of the opponent.î Here also there are two premises.
[17.8] One of them is our saying, ìIf the revolutions of the sphere have no
end, then something that has no end has been destroyed.î The judgment that
necessarily follows from the destruction of something that had no end, based on
the statement affirming that the revolutions of the sphere have no end, is the
cognition that we claim and judge [to be so]. It is possible to suppose [however]
that the opponent might admit it or deny it, saying, ìI do not concede that this
result necessarily follows.î
[17.11] The second [premise] is our saying, ìThis result is absurd.î And it can
also be supposed that [the opponent] will reject this, saying, ìI concede the first
premise, but I do not concede this second one,î (that being the impossibility that
something that has no end should be destroyed). But if the opponent admits the
two premises, then the admission of the third cognition that follows from both of
them will follow necessarilyóthe third cognition being an acknowledgement of
109
the absurdity of his premise which lead to that absurd conclusion.
[17.16] These are the three clear methods of demonstration that produce
evidence that indubitably yields knowledge. And the knowledge that is obtained
is the proposition that was sought and desired to be proven. The pairing of the
two premises which necessarily resulted in that knowledge is called, ìproof.î
Knowledge of the manner [by which] the thing sought results from the pairing of
the two premises is knowledge of the manner by which the proof indicates [its
conclusion]. Your thought by which you bring the two premises into
consideration and seek how to infer from both of them the third term is
theoretical reflection.
[18.4] Therefore, in order to acquire the knowledge sought, you must fulfill
two tasks: The first is to bring the two premises to your mind; this is called
thought. The other is to try fervently to understand the way to derive the desired
conclusion from the relation between the two premises.128 This is called
investigation. Therefore, those who attend only to the first of these [A 50] two
requirements say, in defining theoretical reflection, that it is thought; and those
who attend only to the second requirement say, in defining theoretical reflection,
110
that it is to seek the most probable cognition or opinion; but those who attend to
both requirements at the same time say, in defining theoretical reflection, that it
is thought which investigates129 the most probable knowledge or opinion.
[18.10] Therefore, this is what ought to be understood by proof, the proven,
the method for proving, and the true essence of theoretical reflection. And after
this, leave behind you all of the pages blackened with so many prolix and
repetitive admonitions that are of no use to satisfy the longings of the inquirer
and do not satiate the thirsty. For, the meaning130 of these precise technical terms
may only be penetrated by someone who, after perusing many works, realizes
the futility of his endeavor. For if you wanted now to find the truth about
everything that has been said to define what theoretical speculation was, that
inquiry would demonstrate to you that, after long reasoning, you would have
not come up with any useful result at all. On the other hand, if you know that
there are only three cognitions, two of which are premises that must be related
one to another in a particular way, and a third [19] that necessarily follows from
them; and [furthermore, if you know that for all of this] you need to observe but
two requirements: one, to have the two premises in mind; and the other, to seek
111
the way to derive from them the cognition of the third; then after that, you are
free to choose any of the definitions [A 51] of theoretical reflectionówhether you
take it to mean thought (that is, the presence of the [first] two cognitions [in the
mind]), or inquiry (which is seeking to understand, from the standpoint of the
third cognition, how it necessarily follows [from the first two]), or both of these
operations together; for [all] these explanations work, and there is no need to
make too much of the technical conventions.
[19.6] You might say, ìBut my purpose is to know the technical terms of the
theologiansóthat is, can they explain [what they mean by] ëtheoretical reflectioní
or not?î
[19.7] Know that when you hear someone define theoretical reflection as
thought, and another as a search, and another as the thought by which a search is
undertaken, then you will not be left with any doubt that the differences in their
technical terms reduce to those three senses. It would be amazing if someone still
did not understand this and attributed to kalam a definition of theoretical
reflection that confused the issues because he felt obliged to choose one of the
definitions without noticing that there is no [significant] difference in the basic
112
meaning of what is said on these issues, and that there is no significance to the
differences between the technical terms. Therefore, if you consider theoretical
reflection carefully and allow yourself to be guided on the right course, you will
know for sure that most captious questions arise from the errors of those who
seek for meaning in words when in truth they ought first to establish the ideas
and then, second, examine words.131 [Such persons] should know that intelligible
concepts do not [A52] change based on the technical terms used to express them;
but it is those to whom success [from God] is denied that turn their back on the
path and reject the truth.
[20.1] But you still might say, ìI do not doubt that the truth of the claim is
necessarily inferred from the two premises as long as the opponent admits their
truth. But what would compel the opponent to admit them? And how are these
admitted premises (whose admission is necessary) to be grasped ?
[20.3] Know that there are various sources [of cognition], but we will
endeavor in this book to limit ourselves to six:
[20.5] First: SensationsóI mean, [objects of knowledge] attained [either] by
external or internal observation. For instance, if we were to say, for example,132
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ìEvery temporal thing has a cause; and there are temporal things in the world;
therefore, these necessarily have a cause.î Our affirmation, ìThere are temporal
things in the worldî is one premise whose truth must be admitted by the
opponent, for by the evidence of the external senses he perceives temporal things
such as individual animals and plants, clouds, and rains; and also accidents such
as sounds and colors. And although he imagines that these accidents transfer
[from one subject to another], the transfer [itself] is also a temporal event. For, we
do not claim anything but that there are temporal things without specifying
whether they are substances or accidents, transferences, or something else. So
also, by the evidence of the internal senses he knows the temporality [A 53] of
pains, joys, and the burdens of his heart. He would thus be unable to deny [this].
[20.13] Second: Pure intellectówhen we say that the world is either temporal
or eternal and that beside these two alternatives there cannot be a third, every
intelligent man must necessarily recognize the truth of this assertion. If we say,
for example, ìThat which is not prior to temporal things is temporal; and the
world is not prior to temporal things; therefore it is temporal,î then the first
premise, saying ìthat which is not prior to temporal things is temporalî must
114
necessarily be admitted by the opponent, because that which is not prior to
temporal things must be either simultaneous with them or subsequent to them,
with no possibility of a third hypothesis. And if the opponent should claim a
third hypotheses, he would end up negating something with it that is obvious to
the intellect. And if he should deny that what is simultaneous or subsequent to
what is temporal is not temporal, he would also be denying what is immediately
self-evident.
[21.5] Third: Corroborative reports. For example, we could say that
Muḥammad (the blessings of God and peace be upon him) was truthful133
because everyone that brings forth a miracle is truthful; he brought forth a
miracle; therefore he was truthful.
[21.8] If someone were to say, ìI do not concede that [Muḥammad] brought
forth a miracle,î we would respond, [21.9] ìHe brought forth the Qurʾān;134 the
Quʾān is a miracle; therefore he brought forth a miracle.î [The opponent] might
concede one of the two premises (that the Qurʾān is a miracle) either
spontaneously or after seeing proofs and then want to reject the other premise
(that [Muḥammad] brought forth the Qurʾān), saying, ìI do not concede that the
115
Qurʾān was brought forth by Muḥammadî (the blessings of God and peace be
upon him). [A 54] But he could not do this, because corroborative reports give us
this knowledge, just as they give us the knowledge of Muḥammadís existence [in
the first place], and of his prophetic mission, and of the existence of Mecca, and
the existence of Jesus, Moses, and all of the other prophets.
[21.14] Fourth: That the premise is already proven by means of another
syllogism that is based on one or several of the other stepsówhether that be [22]
evidence of the senses, intellection, or unbroken historical testimony. That which
branches from the root can become the root of yet another syllogism. Thus, for
example, after we have demonstrated that the world is temporal, it is possible for
us to place the temporality of the world as the premise of a new syllogism,
saying, for example, ìEvery temporal thing has a cause; the world is temporal;
therefore, the world has a cause.î For they135 cannot deny the worldís being
temporal after we have already established it with proofs.
[22.5] Fifth: Things that are heard.136 For instance, we may claim, for example,
to demonstrate that acts of disobedience exist by the will of God and say,
ìEverything that exists does so by Godís will; acts of disobedience exist;
116
therefore they exist by Godís will.î Now, the existence indicated by our saying
ìeverything that existsî is known by sensory evidence; and that they are acts of
disobedience is known through the revealed law. If an opponent denies our
affirmation that ìeverything that exists does so by Godís will,î he may be refuted
either by means of revelationóas long as he acknowledges revelationóor by
rational demonstration. But we would prove this premise through the
unanimous consensus of the [A 55] Islamic community that holds as true the
following sentence: ìThat which God wills [to exist] exists, and that which he
does not will, does not exist.î It will be the hearing [of this statement] that
impedes the denial of the aforementioned premise.
[22.12] Sixth: The premise taken from what the opponent believes or
concedes.137 For, although its proof is not established for us by sensory or rational
evidence, we could benefit from it by taking it for the premise of our syllogism
without the opponent being able [23] to reject that which is destructive of his
belief. Examples of this kind abound and it is not necessary to single out any one
in particular.
[23.2] You might say, ìMight there not be some difference between these
117
cognitions in terms of their usefulness for syllogistic, speculative reasoning?î
Know that they are differentiated in terms of the pervasiveness of their benefit.
The truths of intellectual and sensible evidence are generally acknowledged by
all people, except those who have no intelligence or [are lacking] a sense, the
premise being known [to others] through the sense [he] has lost.138 An example of
this would be a premise that is known through the sense of sight. If used with a
blind person, it will be of no benefit. And if the blind person is the one engaged
in theoretical inquiry, he cannot use it as a premise. The same holds true with the
deaf for what [is known] through hearing.
[23.7] The criteria of corroborative reporting [A 56] is also useful, but only [in
establishing] the truth for those to whom the corroborative reports have come.
For, if someone comes to us in the condition of being from a distant place, not
having heard of the Prophetic call [of Muḥammad], then no matter how much
we wanted to show him by means of [these] corroborative reports that
Muḥammad (may the blessings of God and peace of all peace be upon him)
showed his calling by [revealing] the Qurʾān, it could not be done without our
first allowing [the newcomer] sufficient time to be informed by those
118
corroborative reports, the Lord willing that the tradition be established without
rebellion.139
[23.11] The statement of al-Shāfiʿī (may God be pleased with him) on the
question the killing of a Muslim for [his] killing a dhimī140 is known through
corroborative reporting according to the Islamic lawyers who followed him, but
not for the commonality of [traditional] imitators. How many a question in [al-
Shāfiʿīís school] concerning individual questions is not considered to be known
through corroborative reports for most of the Islamic lawyers [of other schools]!
[23.13] As for the premises whose truth is based on a prior syllogism, they are
not useful except with those for whom the truth of that syllogism is secured.
[23.14] As for the admitted premises of the [various] schools of thought, they
are of no use to one engaged in theoretical inquiry except to be used in
theoretical inquiry with someone who adheres to that school of thought.
[23.15] As for [premises] from things that are heard, they are not useful except
for persons who accept them as valid criteria.
[24.1] These are the criteria for knowing the premises that, through their
proper placement and order, generate cognition of matters sought for but
119
heretofore unknown. And with this we conclude the initial introductions. Let us
now concern ourselves with the cardinal themes that are the purpose of this
book.
120
Notes
118 These are Miḥak al-naẓar fī al-manÅiq and Mʿiyār al-ʿilm. Asín gives an
analysis of the contents of these two manuals on logic in the second appendix to
his translation of the Iqtiṣād. He also notes that in the introduction to the
Mustasfa, Ghazālī summarizes the doctrine of the aforementioned manuals and
that in the first seven chapters of Qistas he also discusses the rules of the
categorical, hypothetical, and disjunctive syllogism. Finally, the first book of
Maqasid is dedicated to logic per se. This last work was known to the scholastics,
having been translated into Latin at Toledo.
119 Sabr wa al-taqsīm. This is a form of argument used mostly by the
mutakalimūn which involves enumerating all the alternatives to a proposition and
showing all but one to be invalid.
120 More detailed arguments against the eternity of the world are offered later
in Part 1. See 27.7, for example.
121 This is an interesting use of the term (ʿilm), which is usually translated as
science or knowledge here. Sometimes, however, the context demands a different
rendering, and I have chosen ìcognition,î because it carries the connotative
meaning of ìunderstandingî while preserving an etymological connection to
ìknowledge.î For another example of a translator who opted for this term, see
Richard J. McCarthyís translated excerpt from ʿAjāʾib al-qalb in appendix 5 of
Deliverance, 312.
122 That is, the restriction to the two given alternatives.
123 This awkward phrasing reflects awkwardness in the Arabic.
124 Aṣl, the word here translated as ìpremise,î is more literally translated as
ìroot,î a basic connotation that Ghazālī was clearly exploiting in developing the
analogy he does at this point.
121
125 Al-Ghazālī refers here to the categorical syllogism.
126 This is the reductio ad absurdum method.
127 We seem to be missing a step here. What evidence forms the basis for the
assertion that something that was not supposed to stop has in fact stopped?
Ghazālī does not answer at this point.
128 It is significant that Ghazālī is teaching a system in which the conclusions
come first and determine the argument to be made in support of them. This
accords, of course with the idea that revealed truths are the starting point. But
what happens when the revelations leave room for different rational
interpretations?
129 Baḥatha is translated here as ìinvestigateî for the sake of consistency in
glossing this term throughout the text. It should be noted, however, that it carries
the connotation of searching, so that this phrase might also be rendered, ìit is
thought which searches for the most probable cognition or opinion.î
130 Al-Ghazālī uses an interesting word here; qadr means scope, quantity,
value, degreeóin other words, something that can be understood with
mathematical precision.
131 This is an important reference to Ghazālīís commitment to giving primacy
to ideas over terminology in his writing. See the translatorís introduction for
further comments and references to the work of Lasarus-Yafeh on this subject.
132 The redundancy is in the Arabic.
133 Ṣādiq : Meaning, genuine, truly what he represented himself to beóa
prophet.
134 Asín renders this and later passages as saying that Muḥammad was the
author of the Qurʾān, a significantly inaccurate translation.
122
135 Meaning, the opponents.
136 For further discussion of this concept see the translatorís introduction.
137 Here is an explicit statement of one of the methods Ghazālī used most
famously in Tahāfut al-falāsifah.
138 Or, if we follow Asínís rendition of this passage, ìIn such cases, even
though the proposition continues to be knowable in itself, what is lacking is the
faculty to know it.î
139 For some reason Asín omits this last sentence and the next paragraph,
indicating such with ellipses.
140 In classical Islamic civilization, a non-Muslim who was subject to the
protections and regulations of Islamic law.
PART ONE
[24.3] Considering the essence of God most high
Consisting of ten propositions
The First Proposition
[24.6] The existence of God most high and holy, and demonstration thereof.
[A 59] We [indeed] say: The existence in time of every temporal thing has a
cause; the world141 exists in time; therefore, it follows necessarily from this that
[the world] has a cause. By ìworldî we mean every existent other than God most
high. By ìevery existent other than God most high,î we mean all bodies and
their accidents. The detailed explanation of this is as follows: We do not doubt
the basis142 of existence. Next, we know that every existent either occupies space
or does not occupy space. Everything that does occupy space but has no
composition [of parts] we call a single substance.143 If, on the other hand, it is
compounded with another [single substance], then we call it body. If it does not
occupy space and requires for its existence a body in which to subsist, we call it
124
accident;144 and if it does not [have such a requirement], then that is God most
glorious, most high.
[24.13] Concerning the existence of bodies and their accidents, these are
known by observation. And pay no mind to anyone who would dispute the
[existence of] accidents, even though he might rant and rave and demand proof
from you, [A 60] for his own arguments, disputes, exclamations and protests [25]
do not exist, then how can one get involved in responding to him or listening to
him?145 And if, on the other hand, they do exist, there can be no doubt that they
are something distinct from the body of the disputant, since his body existed
earlier, when the disputation did not exist. You know, therefore, that the body
and the accident are apprehended by the senses.
[25.3] As for the existent that is incorporeal and not a substance that occupies
space and that is not accident, its existence cannot be perceived by the senses.
Now then, we claim its existence, and we claim that the world exists by it and its
power. But this is perceived through the proof of reason, which proof we have
previously mentioned, not through sense perception.
[25.6] Let us return, then, to verifying [the argument that the world has a
125
cause]. We had brought together two premises relating to it, either of which
might be denied by an opponent. We say to him, then: Which of the two
premises do you dispute? He might respond: I dispute your saying that every
temporal thing has a cause, for how do you know this? Then we will say: This
premise must be admitted because it is primary and necessary evidence in the
mind, such that, whoever hesitates [in accepting it] does so because it has not
become clear to him what we mean by the ter ìtemporal thing ì and the term
ìcause.î Once he has understood the significancation of those terms, his intellect
will necessarily affirm that ìevery temporal thing has a cause,î [A 61] for, by
ìtemporal thingî we mean that which was nonexistent and which then became
existent.
[25.12] Now then, its existence, before existing, was either impossible or
contingent. It is untrue that it was impossible, since that which is impossible
never exists at all. Then, if its existence was contingent (and by ìcontingent” we
only mean something conceivable as existing and conceivable as not existing,
and if it is not existent it is because its existence is not necessary in its essenceó
since if its existence existed essentially it would be a necessary existent and not
126
contingent); rather, its existence would require a deciding factor146 for its
existence over nonexistence so that its nonexistence would change to existence.
And if its nonexistence should continue, inasmuch as there was no deciding
factor for its existence over nonexistence, then that which the deciding factor
does not bring into being does not exist. And by ìcauseî we mean nothing but
the deciding factor.147
[26.2] In short, that nonexistent being which continues in nonexistenceóits
nonexistence will never be supplanted by existence so long as a deciding factor
that renders existence over continuing nonexistence is not realized. Once the idea
explained by these words is conceived in the understanding, the intellect is
compelled to acknowledge its veracity.
[26.5] This is the explanation of that premise,148 which in reality is [just] to
explain the terms ìtemporal thingî and ìcause,î not to establish the proof for the
premise.
[26.6] If someone were to say, ìWith [A 62] what would you deny [the
opponent] who disputes the second premiseóthat is, your saying that ìthe
world is temporal?î149 We would say: This premise is not axiomatic; rather we
127
shall prove it by a demonstration, constructed from two other premises. (Now,
when we say that the world is temporal, by ìworldî we mean only bodies and
substances150 only.) Let us say, then, that no body is devoid of temporal things;
whatever is not devoid of temporal things is temporal; from this it necessarily
follows that every body is temporal. Now, which of the two premises is
contested?
[26.11] [The opponent] might say: Why do you say that ìno body or spatial
being is devoid of temporal things?î151 Then we would say: Because it is not
devoid of movement and rest, and those are two temporal things. [The
opponent] might say: You claim their existence and then their temporality; but
we concede neither.
[27.1] We say: In the works on theology the answer to this problem is stated at
great length, though it does not merit such prolixity. For the problem can never
at all occur to someone who sincerely seeks guidance, since it would never at all
occur to a reasonable person to doubt the existence in himself of accident by way
of pains, sicknesses, hunger, thirst, and [A 63] other states, nor their
temporality.152 Likewise, when he considers the bodies of the world, he will not
128
doubt that they are subject to changes of states and that these changes are
temporal. If the opponent is obstinate it will be pointless to contend with him
over this. For to suppose that [such] an opponent will be convinced by what we
say is to suppose an impossibilityóto wit, that the opponent is a reasonable
person.
[27.7] Now, those who are opposed to the temporality of the world are the
falasifah. [However,] they maintain that the bodies of the world divide into the
heavens (which move continuously and whose individual movements are
temporal but in a continuous succession from eternity and to eternity) and the
four elements153 that are contained within the sublunary world. These share
matter as the basis of their forms and accidents, the matter being eternal while
the forms and accidents are temporal and follow on one another in succession
from eternity and to eternity.154 [The falāsifah add] that through heat water comes
to be air and that air is changed by heat into fire, and so on with the rest of the
elements.155 [They also say] that these intermix through temporal admixtures and
thereby the minerals, plants, and animals come to be, so that the four elements
never are separated from those temporal forms, and [A 64] the heavens
129
[likewise] are never separated from temporal movements. The falāsifah only
dispute our saying that ìwhatever is not devoid of temporal things is temporal.î
Hence, there is no point in lingering over this premise. Nevertheless, so as not to
fail to follow the rules of the discourse, let us still say:
[28.1] Substance is necessarily156 either in motion or at rest, both of which are
temporal [states]. As for motion, its temporal occurrence is sensed. If one
supposes a stationary substance such as the earth, the supposition of its motion is
not impossible. Rather, the possibility [of its being in motion] is known
necessarily. For, when that possibility is actualized, it has a commencement157
and annihilates what is at rest. And rest also, prior to [movement], is something
that has a beginning, because what is eternal cannot be annihilated, as we will
note when formulating the proof of the eternity of God most high.
[28.6] And if one wished to draw a proof for the existence of a motion
superadded to a body, we say: When we say that this substance is moved, we
affirm [the existence of] something other than the substance, even though when
we say, ìthis substance is not moved,î what we say is [also] correct, because the
substance remains static.158 For if what is understood by ìmovementî were the
130
same as [what is understood by] ìsubstance,î the negation of the former would
be the negation of the latter. Likewise, the proof [A 65] can be extended to the
affirmation and negation of repose. But in general, undertaking to prove what is
evident serves only to make it more obscure than to clarify it.
[28.11] It might be said, ìHow do you know that [movement is something
that] is originated? Perhaps it is latent [within substance] and manifest [at
different times]?
[28.11] We say: If we were to operate in this book on topics external to its
objective, we would have refuted the doctrine of the latency and emergence
accidents. But we will not bother with what does not impinge on our objective.
But we will [just] say: Movement, whether latent or manifest, cannot exist but in
substance; and both [latent and manifest movement] are originated; therefore, it
is established that substance is not devoid of temporal events.
[29.1] But perhaps [the opponent] will say: Maybe movement transfers from
some other place [to the body that is moved]. How do you know it is false to say
that accidents transfer [from one subject to another]?
[29.2] We say: The proofs that have been mentioned to refute this theory159
131
are feeble, so we will not add to the length of this book by summarizing and
countering them. But the correct way to expose its error will be for us to explain
that the explanation of the [correct] theory cannot be conceived by the
understanding of anyone who fails to grasp what accident truly is and what
transfer truly is. He who truly understands [A 66] what accident is will realize
the impossibility of its transference.
[29.6] To clarify this [further], ìtransferî is an expression used for the transit
of substance from place to place. This is established in the intellect if [the concept
of] substance is understood, and place is understood, and the specification160 of
substance by place being superadded to the essence of substance is understood.
And, moreover, it is known that accident invariably has a substrate, just as
substance invariably has a place. So it is imagined that accident is related to
substrate as substance is related to place. From this [notion] arises in the
estimative faculty [the fallacy] of the possibility of [accidents] transferring in
[substrate], similar to substance [transferring from place to place].161 But if this
analogy were correct, then the specification of accident by substrate would be
[something] superadded to the essence of accident and substrate, just as the
132
specification of substance by place is [something] superadded to the essence of
substance and place. The result is that accident may subsist in [another] accident.
But predication of accident of accident requires another specification that is
superadded to the predicate and what is predicated of it, and so on successively
[ad infinitum]. The result is that one accident does not exist without there also
existing an infinite number of accidents along with it.162
[29.15; A 67] Let us examine, therefore, the cause by reason of which there is a
difference between the specification of accident by substrate and the specification
[30] of substance by place, since one of the two specifications is superadded to
essence of specified thing and the other is not.163 From [this] the error in
imagining the transfer [of accident] becomes clear. The secret [to the problem] is
that although substrate is necessary for accident the same as place is necessary
for substrance, there is nevertheless a difference between the two necessary
[requirements] since [one kind of] adherent to a thing is essential while [another
kind] of adherent to a thing are not essential. By ìessentialî I mean that which,
when it is annihilated, annihilates [also] the thing [to which it is related]. That is,
if it were annihilated in existence, then the existence of the thing [it was
133
connected to] would also be annihilated. If it is annihilated in the intellect, then
that which is known through it would [also] be annihilated in the intellect. But
place is not essential to substance.
[30.7] Let us first consider body and substance. Then, after that, we will
consider placeówhether it is something fixed164 or something imagined. We
come to the truth of this question through proofs of reason. We perceive the
body through the senses and what is evidenced without a proof. That is why the
specific place165 of Zaydís body, for example, does not pertain essentially to Zayd,
nor does the annihilation of Zaydís body follow from [its] vacating that place and
[that place] being exchanged [for another].166 But it is not that way with Zaydís
height, for this is an accident that subsists in Zayd; we do not think of it per se,
without Zayd. Rather, we think of Zayd [A 68] the tall [one]. Zaydís height,
therefore, is thought of as consequent on Zaydís existence, so that from the
hypothetical nonexistence of Zayd necessarily follows the annihilation of Zaydís
height. Zaydís height has neither subsistence in existence or in the mind without
Zayd. Thus, the specification of Zaydís [height] is by his essence. That is, it exists
by reason of its essence and not because of a new concept that is a specification
134
being superadded to it. If that specification [of height as belonging to Zayd] is
annihilated, then [the height] itself167 is annihilated. Transfer168 annihilates [this]
specification, and thus [the heightís] essence is annihilated, since its specification
as pertaining [exclusively] to Zayd is not superadded to its essence, [and by
ìessenceî] I mean that which annihilates [whatever pertains to it when it ceases
to exist, because it is essential, not additional].169 So the discussion reverts to the
essence of accident in contrast to the specification of [the essence of substance] by
place. For [the specification of place as it pertains to substance] is additional to
[substance]. Hence, the annihilation of [that specification] through [the
substanceís] transfer [to another place] does not [31] annihilate [the substance]
itself.170 And [so] the discussion [now] reverts to whether transfer annihilates
specification by substrate. For if specification by substrate were something [only]
superadded to the essence, then the [essence] would not be annihilated by [the
annihilation of that specification]. But if the specification is not a superadded
meaning, [then] with its annihilation the essence is annihilated. This has been
made manifest and the inquiry comes down to [the fact] that the specification of
accident by its substrate cannot be something superadded to the essence of
135
accident in the way that substance is specified by its place. And this is for the
reason we have mentioned: that substance is thought of in itself and place is
thought of in terms of [substance], not that substance is thought of in terms of
place.171 [A 69]
[31.6] As for accident, inasmuch as it is thought of in and with substance, not
in and of itself, the essence of accident is that which has its subsistence in specific
substance and does not have an essence without it. Thus, when its separation
from that specific substance is reckoned, the nonexistence of its essence is [also]
determined.
[31.8] We have based the discussion on [the example of] height in order to
make [our] intent understood. For whereas height is not an accident but rather
an expression for a large number of bodies in one respect, it brought our
objective closer to the understanding. And if it is understood, then let the [same]
explanation be applied to accidents.172
[31.11] This precision and probing after truth, though not really appropriate
for this compendium, was nevertheless needed [here] because what has been
mentioned concerning it [up till now] has been unconvincing and opaque.173 We
136
have now finished proving one of the two premises, which is that the world is
not devoid of temporal things,174 since it is not devoid of motion and rest, which
are two things that are temporally originated and that do not [come about]
through transfers [of accidents or properties]. But it is not necessary to belabor
this point in answering the opponent who believes it, since the falāsifah are
agreed that bodies of the world are not devoid of temporal things, though they
deny the temporality of the world.
[31.15] But if someone says: The [A 70] second premise still remains, which is
[32] your affirmation that that which is not devoid of temporal things is a
temporal being. What is the proof of it?
[32.2] We say: If the world were eternal (despite the fact that it is not devoid
of temporal things), it would be necessary to affirm that temporal events have no
beginning, and it would have to be [the case] that the revolutions of the sphere
were infinite in number. But this is impossible because it leads to an
impossibility, and everything that leads to an impossibility is an impossibility.
We will explain that three impossibilities follow [from this hypothesis].
[32.5] The first is that, if it were correct, then that which is endless would have
137
elapsed and there would have been a finish to it and an end. There is no
difference between our saying ìit elapsedî and our saying ìit stopped,î nor
between our saying ìit finished,î and our saying ìit ended.î It follows
necessarily that one would have to say that something that had no end has
ended. What it is clearly impossible is that something with no end should end,
and that that which was endless should finish and elapse.175
[32.9] The second [absurdity] is that if the revolutions of the sphere were
unending, they would either be even, odd, or neither even or odd, or both even
and odd at the same time. But these three176 alternatives are [all] absurd, and so
what results from them is absurd. It is clearly absurd to have a number that is
neither even nor odd, or that is both even and odd at the same time. Even is that
which is divisible into two equal partsósuch as ten, for example. Odd is that
which cannot be divided into two equal partsósuch as seven.177 [In the case of]
every number composed of units, it is either divisible into two equal parts or
unequal parts, and is either prone to division or to no division, or it is devoid of
any of these [properties], which is impossible.178 It is not true that it can be even,
because the even is [33] not odd for lack of only one [unit]; when one unit is
138
added, it becomes odd. But how, how can one unit be lacking from a number
that is supposedly infinite? It is [equally] absurd that it should be odd, for odd
becomes even with the addition of one. Therefore, if it remains odd it is for lack
of this unit. But how can a number that is supposedly infinite be lacking one
unit?
[33.4] The third [absurdity] that follows for the aforesaid hypothesis is the
existence of two numbers both of which are infinite [in and of themselves] and of
which one is smaller than the other. Now, it is impossible that one infinite be
smaller than another infinite, because ìsmallerî is that which lacks something
which, if that something were added to it, it would become equal. But how can
anything be lacking from the infinite?
[33.8] The demonstration179 of the aforesaid is that Saturn, according to the
[falāsifa], makes one revolution [around the earth] every thirty years, and the sun
makes one every year. Therefore, the number of revolutions of Saturn is like one
thirtieth of the revolutions of the sun, since it makes thirty revolutions every
thirty years while Saturn makes only one, and one is one thirtieth part of thirty.
Now, the revolutions of Saturn are infinite, but nevertheless their number is less
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than those of the sun, since it is known necessarily that one thirtieth of something
is smaller than the thing itself.
[33.13] The moon makes twelve revolutions in one year. Therefore the
number of the revolutions of the sun would be like one twelfth of those of the
moon; and notwithstanding that both numbers are infinite, one of them is
smaller than the other, which is an obvious absurdity.
[33.16] It might be said [by someone] that things within the power of God
most high are [A 72] infinite according to you as well, likewise the objects of his
knowledge. But the objects of his knowledge [34] are greater [in number] than
things within his power, since neither the essence of the Eternal, his attributes,
nor likewise the continuously existent being, nor any such thing are within
[Godís] power to enact.180
[34.2] We say: When we say that the possible objects are infinite [for God] we
do not mean to say the same as when we say that the cognizable objects are
infinite for him. Rather, what we mean to say is that God most high has an
attribute called power by virtue of which he bestows existence upon beings and
that the efficacy [of this attribute] is never annihilated.
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[34.5] Now then, this last phrase, ìthe efficacy [of this attribute] is never
annihilated,î does not imply in any way any affirmation of things, much less the
predication of finitude or infinitude of them. Thus, no one falls into this error
except those who examine ideas through words and who, upon seeing that the
morphology of both terms ìthe cognizableî and ìthe possibleî are of the same
[grammatical] type suppose that the meaning of both is one and the same. Not at
all! There is no analogous relationship whatsoever between the two of them. On
the other hand, our saying that ìthe cognizable [objects] are infinite [for God]î
contains a hidden meaning that is completely the opposite of the one that
initially occurs to the mind upon hearing the phrase for the first time. The first
[thing] that occurs to the mind is that the existence is affirmed of various things
called cognizables that are infinite, which is absurd. Rather, the things that are
spoken of here are existents and they are finite. But the demonstration of this
point would require prolonged explanations.
[34.12] Anyway, the problem has been dispelled by explaining in what sense
[A 73] objects of [Godís] power are infinite. A consideration of the other extreme
[of the objection], which has to do with cognizable objects, is not necessary in
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order for it to be refuted. And with this the second premise has been established
as correct through the third demonstrative method of those that we expounded
in the fourth introduction to this book.
[34.15] At this point you will know the existence of the Maker, since [this] has
become evident in the aforementioned proofónamely our saying, ìThe world is
temporally originated; every temporal thing has a cause; therefore, the world has
a cause.î
[35.1] This first proposition has therefore become established through that
proof. But nothing seems clear to us as yet except the existence of the cause.
Now, whether this cause is eternal or temporal we cannot yet clearly discern. So,
we will turn our attention to that. [35.3; A 74]
The Second Proposition
[35. 4] We propose that the cause which we have established for the existence
of the world is eternal181 [a parte ante]. If [the cause] had a beginning, it would
require another cause, which would require yet another cause, and so on in a
chain that is either infinite, which is absurd, or that terminates without absurdity
in an eternal [being]. Now then, this is what we were seeking, and we call this
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[eternal being] the Maker of the world, whose existence must per force be
acknowledged. By ìeternal [being]î we do not mean anything but a being whose
existence has not been preceded by nonexistence. Thus, nothing comes under the
term ìeternalî except the affirmation of a being and the negation of a prior
nonbeing.
[35.9] Do not think, then, that eternal [being] indicates something superadded
to the essence of the eternal [being], for in such a case you would have to say that
this is something that was eternal by virtue of another eternity that was
superadded to it, and the chain would continue thus without end. [35.11; A 75]
The Third Proposition
[35.12] We propose that the Maker of the world, in addition to being an
existent [from eternity] also has no end. He is of an everlasting duration because
it is impossible that his eternal existence should lead to his nonexistence.
[35.14] We say this because if it were to cease to exist its annihilation would
require a cause, since it passes away after its existence had persisted from
eternity. And we have already noted that everything that passes away requires a
cause, not in that it is an existent but in that it passes away.
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[36.1] Just as the change from nonbeing to being requires a deciding factor for
being over nonbeing, so also the transition from being to nonbeing requires a
deciding factor for nonbeing over being.
[36.3] But that deciding factor182 is either the agent that [actually] annihilates
[it] by way of power, or is an opposite, or is the suppression of one of the
necessary preconditions for the existence of that [thing]. It is impossible that it
would change due to the power [of an agent] since existence is a positive thing
that is considered to [A 76] proceed from183 the power [of an agent], and the one
having power thus becomes, through the use of that power, the active [cause] of
something. Nonbeing [on the other hand] is not a [positive] thing and therefore it
is absurd that it should be an actual thing resulting from power. For we say: Is
the agent of nonbeing the maker of something? If yes is the answer, then that is
absurd because nonexistence is not a thing.
[36.8] If the Muʿtazilite says that the nonexistent is a thing and an essence,
that essence would not be the effect of an [divine] power. It is inconceivable for
him to say, ìthe act that comes about from [divine] power consists in enacting
that essence,î for [according to the Muʿtazilite], it is eternal. Rather, [Godís] act is
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the negation of the existence of [such] an essence. The denial of the existence of
[such an essence] is not [the negation of] a thing. Hence, [God] did not enact
anything.
[36.11] Now if what we have said is true, that ìIt has not done anything,î
then our other statement is also true that the agent has not exercised power to
leave any trace or effect, and, therefore, it has remained as it was, and has not
done anything.
[36.13] It is [also] false to say that an opposite annihilates it.184 For if this
opposite being is temporal, then it will [first] be destroyed due to the contrariety
of the eternal [being]. This [actually] takes [logical] precedence over its
destroying the eternal [being]. [37.1] And it is impossible that an eternal being
should have an opposite that is eternal [also], coexisting with it from eternity
and, having not already annihilated it, annihilates it now.185
[37.2] [Finally,] it is false to say that the eternal [being] is annihilated by the
annihilation of some condition for its existence. 186 Actually, if the condition [A
77] were temporal, it would be impossible that the existence of the eternal [being]
should be conditional upon something temporal. And if it were eternal, then the
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same thing must be said of the condition as was said of the being that is
conditioned by it: it is impossible that either of them are annihilated, being
eternal.
[37.5] Someone might say: And how is it that, according to you, substances
and accidents are annihilated? We answer: As for accidents being annihilated, we
mean that they are annihilated in themselves and in their essence, it being
inconceivable that anything remains.
[37.7] Understand this school [of thought] by applying it, for example, to
movement [which is an accident]: The different states that follow one another in
successive instants are not considered to be movements [in themselves] but
rather inasmuch as they are in continuity by way of those states being
continually originated and continually annihilated. Actually, if [such states]
remain everlastingly, they then would constitute rest, not movement. For the
essence of movement cannot be conceived without also conceiving of
annihilation following existence. This is understood in [the case of] movement,
without any further proof.
[37.11] And as for colors and the other accidents, if what was just said is
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understood about what [would follow] if they remained everlastingly, it would
be impossible that they should then cease to exist (whether through power, or an
opposite being) the same as [we said] before with respect to the eternal [being]
and the example of that [beingís] annihilation. [A 78] It is impossible in the truth
of God most high.
[37.13] We have shown first Godís187 eternity [a parte ante] and the continuity
of his existence without end. And there is no being that is necessary for his
reality or that determines [his existence] in succession like there necessarily is for
movement wherein there is a successive annihilation of existence. And as for
substances, their annihilation consists in that neither movement nor rest is
created in them. Thus, with the indispensable condition [for them] to exist being
supplanted, their continuity or permanence [in being] cannot be conceived. [38.1]
The Fourth Proposition
[38.2] We propose that the Maker of the world is not substance occupying
space because his eternity has been established. Thus, if he occupies place, he
cannot but be in movement or at rest in that place, and therefore, he cannot but
be affected by temporal things, and he consequently would also be temporal,
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according to what we said previously.
[38.5] But someone might say: And why do you reject those who call [God]
substance, even when they do not affirm a spatial nature for him? We say: in our
judgment, human reason cannot see any problem with the use of these words in
referring to him except for what is correct in language and what is correct for
revelation.
[38.8] Regarding the language: If [the opponent] claims that this accords with
the usage of the [Arabic] language, this calls for investigation. If someone who
submits this claims, [A 80] that this is [Godís] nameóthat is, that the one who
has set down the language applied that it to God most highóthis would be a lie
against the language. Should he claim that this is a metaphor that views the
meaning shared with that from which the metaphor is taken, then, if this is
appropriate for the metaphor, one would not disavow it for lexical reasons. But if
it is inappropriate, it would then be said to him, ìyou have sinned against the
language,î though [his] sin may not be that serious unless and to the extent that
he is one of those literati who use symbols of dubious analogy. Now then, the
discussion of this topic does not correspond to intellectual studies.
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[38.14] With respect to divine revelation and the permissibility or
impermissibility of [using the term ìsubstanceî as applied to God], that is a
debate among jurists, since there is no difference between the inquiry into the
permissibility of the use of words without meaning to indicate something evil by
them, and the inquiry of the permissibility of other acts. And there are two
opinions on this:
[39.1] It might be said that a [given] term should not be used in reference to
God most high without the allowance [of revelation], and such allowance is not
found in [the revealed text]. Or it might be said that [the use of a given term with
respect to God] should not be forbidden except by prohibition [in the revealed
text], and such prohibition is [also] not found, therefore there is a debate. For if
there is danger of error [about God], [A 81] then one should guard against it,
since the mere hint of error about the attributes of God most high is forbidden.
On the other hand, if there is no danger of error then there should be no
judgment forbidding it. Both solutions might then be admissible. What is more,
the hint of error will vary according to the terms in question and the norms for
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their use: Sometimes a word might be suspect to some people but not to others.
[39.6; A 82]
The Fifth Proposition
[39.7] We propose that the Maker of the world is not corporeal, because every
body is composed of at least two substances188 that occupy space. But it is
impossible that God is substance;189 therefore, it is also impossible that he is
corporeal; for by ìbodyî we do not mean anything else but this. If someone
called [God] corporeal but by ìcorporealî meant something other than this
meaning, then there would have to be a debate with him over the intent of the
language or the intent of the revelation, but not with arguments from natural
reason. For natural reason does not adjudicate in matters of the use of terms, nor
does it study the letters and sounds that are conventionally used. Furthermore, if
God were corporeal, he would have a specified quantity. He could, therefore, be
conceived of as being lesser or greater [in quantity that what he is]. Now then,
one of two equally possible things is not realized except through the choice of a
[third] party that is capable of specifying one of them over the other, according to
what we previously have said. Therefore, God would have need of some
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specifier who would have influence over him in order to give him the specific
quantity [that he has]; therefore, God would be something made instead of being
the Maker; and he would be created instead of being creator. [40. 1; A 83]
Sixth Proposition
[40.2] We propose that the Maker of the world is not accident because by
ìaccidentî we mean that whose existence requires an essence in which it
subsistsóand that essence is either body or atom;190 therefore, being innovated,
as every body necessarily is, the conditional thing that subsists in it must also,
without doubt, be innovated, since [the notion] of transfer of accidents is false.
[40.5] We have already demonstrated that the maker of the world is eternal;
therefore, it is not possible that he be accident. If ìaccidentî is understood to be
something that is an attribute of a thing that does not occupy place in space, we
would not deny the existence of a such a being; rather, we would [take it in that
sense] to demonstrate the attributes of God most high. Verily, the argument
reduces to the absolute sense of the term ìmakerî or ìagent,î since the absolute
sense is applied to the essence which is endowed with attributes, the priority of
its absolute sense being with respect to the attributes.
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[40.9] If we say that the Maker is not attribute191 we mean that the making
refers to the essence in which [A 84] the attributes subsist, not to those attributes
themselves. Likewise when we say that the carpenter is not an accident nor an
attribute, we mean to say that the art of carpentry bears no relation to the
attributes, but to the essence of which the aggregate of the attributes must
necessarily be predicated in order for that essence to be an artificer. Thus it must
be said also of the maker or artificer of the world. If our opponent understands
ìaccidentî as a thing that is neither a state or mode of being that resides in body,
nor is it an attribute that subsists in essence, then the duty to refute it belongs not
to intellectual reason but to lexicology or revelation. [41.1; A 85]
Seventh Proposition
[41.2] We propose that [God] has no specified aspect from any of the six sides
[of a three-dimensional body]. He who knows the significance of the term ìsideî
and the meaning of the term ìspecification,î will surely understand the
impossibility of sides with respect to [beings that are] not corporeal substances
and accidents, since space is actually something that is conceived of as that by
which a body is specified. But space only becomes a ìsideî when it is related to
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something else that is spatial.
[41.6] The sides are six: top, bottom, front, back, right, and left. ìThe thing is
above us,î means that it is in a space that is contiguous to the head. ìThe thing
that is below us,î means that it is in a space contiguous with the foot. And so on
with the other sides.192 Thus, anything that is said to be on a side, is said to be in a
space, but with the addition of a relation.
[41.9] Our saying ìSomething is in a spaceî may be understood in two ways.
One of them is that [the thing] is specified by [that space] in the sense that
another thing like it is impeded from existing in its stead [in that space]; and that
[is what is meant] by corporeal substances. The other way is that [A 86] [that
thing] is a state that resides in the corporeal substance, because it has been said to
be on a [given] sideóeven though it is [really only so] because of the setting of
the corporeal substance. Thus, the existence of the accident on a [given] side is
not the same as the existence of the corporeal substance [there]. Rather, the side
pertains to the corporeal substance first and foremost, and to the accident
through the setting [of the corporeal substance to which it pertains]. These are
the two aspects in which [something] can be said to be specified in space.
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[41.14] If the opponent intends one of these two [meanings], prove his error to
him with the [same] proof of error [for the claim] that God is corporeal substance
or [42] accident. And if the opponent intends anything other than these two
[understandings], his interpretation will be incomprehensible. The truth about
the correct use of his term will rest upon what is understood [by it], on
lexicology193 and revelation, not on intellectual reason.
[42.2] Now, it may be that the opponent says: ìIn affirming that [God] is on
some side I mean it in a sense that is different from this [that you have said].î But
we will [still] refuse to allow this and say, with respect to your term, that I reject
it if you are using it in [any] way that adopts its plain meaning, for this [plain
meaning] connotes the idea of corporeal substance and accident, which is an
untruth regarding God most high. Nevertheless, it is still possible that I might
not reject what you intend to say; for how could I reject that which I cannot
comprehend? It might be that by this term you intend [A 87] Godís knowledge
and power. In such a case, clearly, I will not deny that God is of some aspect194 in
the sense that he has knowledge and power. Yet once you have opened this
dooróthat is, the door of using the term in a sense other than its obvious
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meaning and what people give it in order to understand [one another]óthen it is
no longer possible to restrict it from any number of meanings you might want to
give it. Nevertheless, I will not reject them as long as those meanings do not
imply concepts that lead to temporality, for whatever leads to [the idea of]
origination in time [with respect to God] is in its essence impossible and leads,
furthermore, to the falsehood of saying that [God] has sides, because this would
occasion contingency in God, giving him a specific aspect, particularizing him to
[just] one of the possible sides. This would be impossible in two aspects:195
[42.11] The first of them is that the side on which God would be specified
would not be specified by him essentially, since all sides are equal to one another
with respect to priority. Thus, to specify just one of these various is not
essentially necessary; [43] only possible. It requires, therefore, a specifier to
specify it, and this specification of it will be superadded to its essence. And
whatever implies contingency [with respect to God] is incompatible with his
eternity, since he is a necessary [A 88] existent in all aspects.
[43.4] It might be said that [God] is on the top side since it is the noblest of the
sides. To this we say that if one of the sides has come to be the top side, it is so
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because [God] created the world in space such that [the top side] was created
there. Prior to the creation of world, above and below did not exist at all, since
both sides are derived from the head and the foot. But at that time there was no
animal at all with respect to whose head ìaboveî could be named as the side
contiguous with it and ìbelowî as its opposite.
[43.8] The second reason is that if God were on a [given] side, he would be in
a spatial [relation] with the world, and every spatial thing would either be lesser
than, greater than, or equal [to him in size]. All this necessarily implies a
determination [of the size of things] by one who determines, and reason
conceives it to be possible that that determiner may require [something] to be
lesser or greater than what it [actually] is. Therefore, [God] would need a
determining and specifying agent.
[43.11] Someone might say, ìIf something is specified as being on a side, then
there must be one who determines [which side]; but accidents are
determined.î196 We say: Accident does not exist on any side in and of itself
[essentially], but through its inherence in a substance.197 So of course it is also
determined by that inherence. If we know [A 89] that ten accidents cannot not
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exist except in ten substances, then it cannot be conceived that they exist [44] in
twenty. The determination of the accidents to be ten [in number] must come by
way of [their] inherence in the determining substances, just as the determination
of [something] to be on a side must [come about] by way of [its] inherence [in
substance].
[44.3] Someone might say, ìIf [God] is not specified as being above, what is
the point of raising the face and hands to the heavens in supplications, whether
as a prescribed action or by natural impulse? And what is to be made of what
[Muḥammad]óGodís blessing and peace be upon himósaid to a slave whom he
intended to manumit but wanted first to be sure of her faith, [asking her]: Where
is God? And she responded with a gesture toward the sky, and he said that she
was a believer?
[44.6] The response to the first is that it is similar to someone
saying, ìIf God is not in the shrine of the Kaʿaba, which is his house, then what
does it matter if we come to this shrine on pilgrimage in order to visit him? And
why are we orienting ourselves in the direction of that shrine when we make the
ritual prayer? And if God is not in the earth, then why do we humble ourselves
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to the point of touching our face to the earth when we prostrate ourselves in
ritual prayer?î To this it should be said: The reason revelation has inculcated the
precept that people should face the shrine of the Kaʿaba in their ritual prayers is
to require a single, fixed direction, because it is indisputable that it brings a
greater submissiveness and [awareness of] the presence of God in the heart [A
90] than irresolution in the direction [of prayer]. Therefore, since all of the
directions are the same with respect to the possibility of being selected for the
direction of prayer, God most high specified a certain area, ennobled it and
magnified it, establishing special relationship between himself and it and
kindling within the hearts of the faithful a certain affection towards it deriving
from the nobility with which he had distinguished it in order to establish the
orientation [for worship]. In like manner, the sky is the qibla for the stars, just as
the shrine [of the Kaʿaba] is for ritual prayer even though the one who is
worshiped and the one to whom we direct our pleas is unbounded by shrine or
sky. There remains, however, in this direction of our gaze heavenward as we
pray, a subtle mystery that very few are capable of penetrating. It is that the
salvation of man, his definitive victory in the life hereafter, shall be achieved only
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by humbling himself to God in his soul and acknowledging the greatness of his
Lord.
[45. 3] Now then, this humbling oneself and acknowledging [Godís] greatness
are acts of the heart whose instruments are the intellect and the members of the
body inasmuch as these are used to purify and cleanse the heart. The heart
actually has been created by God so as to be influenced by the action of the
bodyís members. Likewise he created the members to be influenced by the
beliefs of the hearts. If the [A 91] goal to be achieved is that man should humble
himselfóin his mind and in his heartórecognizing how insignificant he is so
that he can then become aware of the nobility and excellency of the being of God
most high in relation to this, his baseness; and as one of the greatest proofs of his
own lowliness and one of the most effective ways to induce in his own soul
feelings of humility, [let him recognize] that man has been created from the dust
of the earth and that is why the religion demands, as a ritual, that he place upon
the dust (the most base of all things) his own face, which is the most noble of his
members, in order that his heart might be humbled on bringing the forehead into
contact with the earth. In this way the humbling of oneself affects not only the
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body to the degree and manner that it is able, that is, being embraced by the base
and detestable dust, but also with the intellect in the way that corresponds to its
being, that is, recognizing its lowly condition and its base estate upon
recognizing the thing of which it has been created.
[45.12] The same should be said of reverence for God most high, which is as
indispensable as humility for the salvation of the soul. The members [of the
body] must also participate in this sentiment to the degree possible [46] and in
the way that they are capable of. Heart-felt reverence consists in believing and
acknowledging the exalted station of the respected person. Respect in the
members [of the body] consists in attitudes or gestures upwards, which suggest
the elevated class of the respected person. It is so much so that in the language of
familiar conversation it is usual to express the elevated social status of a person
and the respect he deserves by saying of him that he is in the seventh heaven, by
which is metaphorically indicated not just [A 92] the material elevation of a
place, but also the elevation of status. Also the head is moved toward the sky in
order to signify the respect merited by the person of whom we are speaking, and
this gesture indicates that the esteem of that person is in the heavensóthat is to
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say, on highóso that the heavens in these cases indicate what is high.
[46.7] See, then, with what subtlety religion has known how to guide hearts
and bodies to the respect and reverence that are due to God most high. [See] also
how ignorant a person is shown to be who sees only superficially the members of
the body and, negligently, does not bother to delve more deeply into the
mysteries of the hearts. Such an ignorant person supposes that the most
important thing in all of this is what is indicated by the organs of the body in
their gestures and attitudes without noticing that, on the contrary, the first and
principal thing is to know the sentiment of respect within the heart, a sentiment
that, in having respect for [God], indicates high esteem, not a high place in space,
and that the organs of the body fill no role here other than simple subjects and
servants of the heart, serving it in that task of showing to [God] the respect that is
his dueóbut only to the degree that such is possibleóthat is, through gestures or
indications in the direction of [47] certain points. This is the subtle mystery that
abides in raising our faces to the heavens when we want to show respect and
reverence to God most high. And prayer cannot but be a plea [A 93] or petition
for any one of the divine mercies or benevolences. The keep of those blessings
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are the heavens, and the guardians charged with distributing them are the angels
whose fixed abode is the kingdom of the heavens. That is why God most high
says ìAnd in the heaven is your providence and that which ye are promised.î198
Now, instinct moves us spontaneously to turn the face in the direction of the
closet in which is kept the food that we desire. The subjects that hope to receive
something from the rulers, when they know that the gifts will be apportioned,
gather at the door of the treasury and their faces along with their hearts are
inclined to the place where the treasure is found, even though they do not
believe that the king is personally present at the place of the treasure. This is the
same thing that turns the faces of religious people in the direction of heaven by
instinct and by the revealed law. Clearly the common people simply believe that
the Lord whom they worship is in fact in the sky, and this belief is also one of the
causes that moves them to raise their faces in prayer. The Most High is Lord of
all lords. I affirm that those who deviate [from His truth] greatly err.199
[47.10] As for [Muḥammadís] judgment that that slave was a believer for the
simple act of facing heavenward, this also has a clear explanation, for it is
evident that the world has no other way of expressing the high station of a
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person besides the gesture towards what is high. Now then, according to what is
said, that slave was dumb, and as it is supposed that she was an idolateróthat is
to say, of those who believe that [God] dwells in the temple of idolsóthen, when
it was required of her to clearly indicate what her belief was, she let it be known
through that gesture, signaling [A 94] towards the sky, attempting thereby to say
that her Lord, whom she served, did not dwell in the [48] houses of the idols as
the idolaters believed.
[48.2] Someone might say, ìTo deny [that God is in some] place leads to
absurdity, which is affirming the existence of a being that is not in any place, that
is neither within nor without the world, and that is neither united with nor
separated from it, which is absurd.î We say: It is granted that for any existent
capable of relative position to have an existence that is not relative and not
divisible is absurd. [This is so] because it is absurd that every existent capable of
occupying a place in space should have its existence without the six sides [that
are possible] for it. But if there is an existent that is not capable of relation, nor of
occupying a place in space, then it is not absurd that such should be devoid of
that condition.200 It is as if someone were to say, ìIt is absurd [to suppose] an
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existent that was neither powerless nor powerful, neither knowing nor ignorant,
for one of these options must obtain for that thing.î To someone [who reasoned
thus] it might be said: If that being is capable of the two opposing attributes, it is
actually absurd that it should exist without one or the other of them. But if it is
not capable of either of them, then it is not absurd that it should exist without
them.
[48.10] As for inanimate body,201 for which not one [of the opposing
attributes] obtains because it is lacking in the precondition for themówhich is
lifeóits existing [in spatial relations] without them is [certainly] not absurd.
Therefore, the essential condition for being contiguous [with another body] and
for occupying a place in space is fully to be in space or to subsist in a being that
is. [49; A 95] If this [condition] is lacking, then the being with opposing
[attributes] cannot exist either. The question then reduces to whether or not an
existent is possible that does not occupy place in space, neither subsists in
another being that occupies it but rather is in fact devoid of the condition for
relation and of having parts.
[49.4] If the opponent supposes that such a being is absurd or impossible, we
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would prove it to him by [saying] that, insofar as every being that occupies place
is temporal, and every temporal being [ultimately] requires an atemporal agent,
then from these two premises there necessarily follows the certainty that there is
a being that does not occupy place. As for the two premises, we have already
demonstrated them. And as for the conclusion that we claim to derive from both
of them, there is no way to deny it, once they are admitted.
[49.8] The opponent might say: ìA being like the one your proof has lead us
to admit must exist cannot be understood.î Then say to him: What is it that is
meant when you say ìcannot be understood?î If you mean to say that that being
is inconceivable, unimaginable, and beyond comprehension, then you speak the
truth, because nothing enters into the conception, the imagination, and the
comprehension except body endowed with color and extension. That which is
devoid of color and extension cannot be represented by the imagination, because
the imagination has been attuned to visible objects, so that it cannot conceive of
anything if it is not so as to be a visible being, and therefore, the things [A 96]
that are not amenable to sight cannot be conceived of by the imagination.
[49.13] But, if what the opponent means is that such a being is unintelligible,
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or rather, that it cannot be known through rational proofs, then what he says is
absurd, since previously we have set forth the rational proofs that demonstrate
the existence of that being which is God. Intelligible only means that to which the
intellect is obliged to assent by the power [50] of a proof that is impossible to
deny. And we have already demonstrated this.202
[50.2] Now, if the opponent should say that what cannot be conceived by the
imagination does not exist, we would judge that imagination has no existence in
and of itself. And we say: The imagination cannot undertake imagining in and of
itself if seeing does not enter the imagination and likewise knowledge, power,
hearing, smell, and motion. And if imagination203 were obliged to affirm a being
of sound, it would per force have color and extension; likewise its image.204
[50.6] The same can be said of all of the affections of the soul: shame, fear,
passion, anger, happiness, sadness, and vanity. One who tried to impose upon
his fantasy the difficult task of forming an exact concept of the being of those
states of the soul after having perceived those states of the soul in themselves
through all their evidences, would find that he was incapable of doing it without
supposing some error. And then he would afterwards deny the existence of a
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being that did not come within the conception of his own fantasy. That is, then,
the way to resolve the objection.
The Eighth Proposition
[50.15] We propose that God most high has nothing to do with the
characteristic of being seated upon the throne. For every [51] being that is
situated upon a body and abides thereon certainly has extension, since [that
being] must either be greater, lesser than, or equal to [the body in which it
resides], all of which cannot but imply extension. For, if it is possible for him to
contact the body of the throne on that upper side, then it is [also] possible for him
to contact the other sides and he turns out to be spatial. But the opponent does
not in any way suppose this, even though it may be logically inferred from his
doctrine. In sum, [God] does not abide upon any body [as a body], and there is
no [other] condition by which he could except as accident , and it has already
been shown that God most high and holy is neither body nor accident. Therefore,
this proposition has no need of being demonstrated further than this.
[51.7] It might be said: Then what do these divine words mean, ìThe Merciful
is established on the throneî?205 And what do those other [words] of Muḥammad
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mean: [A 98] ìGod most high descends each night as low as the heaven of this
lower worldî?
[51.9] We would say: The discussion that would be required to explain this
issue would be lengthy. Nevertheless, we will suggest the straight path through
those two citations that leads to their correct interpretation, and that is for us to
speak of people as being of two kinds: common and learned.
[51.12] For the common people we believe it best not to impose allegorical
interpretations of those texts upon them, but to eliminate [52] from their beliefs
anything that would imply anthropomorphism or argue for temporality [in
God], and verifying that God is a being ìlike unto whom there is nothing else; he
hears and sees [all].î206 When the common people ask the meaning of these
verses, rebuke them and say to them, ìThat is beyond your capacity. Continue on
your own path. Each science has its practitioners.î
[52.4] [Our response] should conform to what some of the forefathers207 said
when questioned about [Godís] sitting [upon the throne]. They said, ìThat he is
seated is known, in what manner is not known. To ask about it is heretical
innovation, [A 99] but it is incumbent [upon us] to have faith in it.î This is
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because the intellects of the masses are not capable of understanding
intelligibles208 and they do understand them through words, for they are also
incapable of perceiving the many various meanings that the Arabs give to words,
taking them metaphorically.
[52.7] On the other hand, for those who are learned, it is appropriate to
explain the [intellectual] meaning to them and cause them to understand it. But I
do not mean by this to say that such a method is obligatory for everyone, for
there is no obligation imposed except the obligation to deny any resemblance
between God and his creatures. But as for the meaning of the Qurʾān, the
revelation does not oblige everyone to comprehend all of the Qurʾān. Nor do we
agree with the opinion of those who say that this pertains only to obscurities,
such as the single letters that open certain chapters of the Qurʾān.209 These single
letters have not actually been placed there as though they were words whose
meaning was based on the usual value that the Arabs gave to them of old;
therefore, we are in the same case as if someone were to speak to us with single
letters that were words for him, but without having previously agreed with us
[53] about their meaning. It is clear that that meaning would be unknown by us.
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In the way he uses them, [A 100] those single letters come to be the same as a
language newly invented by him.
[53.3] On the other hand, those words of Muḥammad (the blessing and peace
of God be upon him), ìGod most high descends to the heaven of this world,î
have an intelligible meaning, and it can be seen that they have been given in
order to make something understood, since, upon hearing them, any person
understands that they mean either what they literally express or some other
metaphorical meaning. How, then, can it be said that this is ambiguous? Rather,
it is a text about which the ignorant will imagine an erroneous meaning while
one with understanding will grasp the correct meaning. It is like the saying of the
Most High, ìHe [God] is with you wherever ye areî (Qurʾān 57:4). An ignorant
person will imagine it in an associative meaning, contrary to the meaning of the
position of God on the throne. The wise person, on the other hand, will
understand it in the sense that God is with all things inasmuch as he knows and
comprehends all with his knowledge. Likewise with [Muḥammadís] saying
(upon him be peace), ìThe heart of the believer is between two fingers of the All-
Merciful.î The ignorant person imagines two members made of flesh, bone, and
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nerves ending in cuticles and fingernails and originating in the palm of the hand.
The wise person, on the other hand, interprets that meaning metaphorically,
excluding the literal value of the words. That is to say, in this text the fingers
indicate the end for which fingers serveóthe mystery, the spirit, and the reality
of [the fingers] is the power [A 101] to turn things around whatever way the
subject desires. So also, in the previous saying of the Most High, ìHe [54] is with
you,î the union expressed by the word ìwithî is the union that is had in the
understanding between subject and object.
[54.2] But one common expression210 of Arabic is for the effect to be expressed
by the cause, and the means to the end to denote the end. As God most high says
in a sacred hadith, ìWhosoever will draw near to me a handbreadth, I will draw
near to him an armís length; and whosever will come to me walking, I will go to
him running.î211 Here ìrunningî means to the ignorant person the motion of
moving the feet with great rapidity, and in the same way ìcomeî means for him
the action of coming closer in distance. On the other hand, for the intellectual it
means the end or object which the physical coming closer is trying to achieveó
that is, grace or favor. Thus, the metaphorical meaning of the text is this: My
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mercy and my grace are poured out upon my servants with much more
promptness than that with which they serve me. This is also like what God most
high says elsewhere, ìVerily, great is the desire with which the pure of heart
have to come to meet me, but my desire to meet them is unsurpassed.î212 The
Most High is certainly above the literal meaning of that word ìdesireî here,
which is a kind of [A 102] moral pain and a need that demands to be satisfied so
that the subject can rest and be comfortedóthat is, an actual imperfection. But,
on the other hand, as desire causes the person desired to kindly welcome the
desiring person and to pour out favors upon him then it will turn out that the
word ìdesireî here comes to be used to mean that effect produced by desire.
Likewise, the words ìwrathî and ìpleasedî express the will to punish and to
reward, [55] which are ordinarily two effects of the same. So likewise, when
[Muḥammad] said, ìThe black stone is the right hand of God upon his earth,î213
the ignorant person believes that by this was meant the hand as opposed to the
left handóthat is, a corporeal member made of flesh and blood and divided into
five fingers. But if this same ignorant person were to open the eyes of his
intellect, he would know that if [God] is seated upon a throne, his right hand
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could not be in the shrine of the Kaʾaba, nor would that hand be a black stone.
He would notice, therefore, if he had the smallest amount of aptitude, that the
term ìright handî is a metaphor for the means of receiving guests. It is
commanded that the stone should be touched and kissed in the same way that it
is commanded for the hand of the king to be kissed, and it is in this sense that the
word is used. The man of perfect intellectual insight into language does not make
too much of such things, because he understands right away their true import.
[55.8] Let us return, then, to the meaning of [A 103] îsittingî and
ìdescending.î As for ìsitting,î that it indicates a relation to the throne is not
impossible; but it is not possible that the throne should be related to God except
inasmuch as the throne is an object of the knowledge of God or of his will, or of
his power; or inasmuch as it is a substrate similar to the substrate of accident; or
inasmuch as it is a place such as is occupied by [physical] body. But some of
these relations are intellectually inadmissible and several do not accord well with
the meaning of the word taken metaphorically. But there should be, among all of
these relationsóbesides which there are no otheróa relation [56] that reason
would not disallow and that would not be incompatible with the meaning of the
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term. Now then, that [the throne of God] is a place or a substrate, like substance
is to accident, is not incompatible with the meaning of the word, but reason
insists that it is impossible, as has already been demonstrated. That it is the object
of Godís knowledge and will, reason does not contradict, but it is incompatible
with the meaning of the word. As for the throne being an object of Godís
poweróthat is, something that falls within the realm of his determining and
dominion even though it is the greatest of the created beings214óthis brings
praise to God [A 104] because it points out and emphasizes the greatness of the
one besides whom there is no greater. This is something that does not contradict
and is consistent with the meaning of the term. That the metaphor is consonant
with its literal meaning is obvious to anyone who knows the Arabic language.
The only ones who will find any difficulty in understanding it are those who,
because of their lack of philological training consider only vaguely the import of
the Arabic vocabulary, similar to the way an Arab would understand the
language of a Turk knowing only the rudiments of it. One of the phrases that are
well said and common is: ìThe ruler sat over his kingdom.î And the poet says:
In Iraq did Bashir establish his seat,
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Sans sword, sans bloodshed, he accomplished the feat.
[56.10] On this subject some of the companions of the Prophet said that the
meaning of ìThe All-Merciful is seated upon the throne,î encompasses the same
[56] idea as ìThen went he to set himself in the heaven, which was then a vapor
of smoke.î215 As for what pertains to the words of Muḥammad, ìGod descends
to the heaven of this lower world,î they also admit of metaphorical
interpretation for two reasons. The first is because the attribution of the descent
of God himself is a metaphorical attribution, since in reality [A 105] it must be
attributed to one of his angels, the same as in the text in which God says,
ìinquire of the city,î where those inquired of are actually her inhabitants. And
this also is a very common metaphor in the languageóI mean, the metaphor that
consists in attributing acts to the lord that belong to his subject. Thus, it is said,
for example, that ìthe king has halted at the gate of the city,î when what is
meant is his army. For if it were said to the person who had informed us that the
king had halted at the gate of the city, ìWhy have you not gone out to meet
him?î he might respond, ìI have not gone out because the king has left to hunt
and he has not stopped yet,î to which no one would then say, ìThen how can he
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have halted if you now say that he has not yet stopped?î The reason is that the
meaning of the first phrase was that not the king but his army had halted at the
gate of the city. This is obvious and evident.
[57.11] The second reason is because the word ìdescendî is often used in the
sense of stooping benevolently, graciously condescending to oneís neighbor, just
as, on the other hand, the word ìlift oneself upî is used in the sense of pride or
haughtiness. It is said, for example, ìSo and so lifts his head to the clouds of
heaven,î to indicate that he is haughty. And it is also said, ìHe has lifted himself
up on highî to indicate that he has become haughty; and if his social status has
become elevated, it is said that he is in the seventh heaven. On the other hand, if
[58] his position declines it is said, ìHe has fallen to the depths.î And if he shows
himself to be benevolent and kindly toward his neighbor it is said, ìHe lowers
himself to the ground and abases himself even to the lowliest degree.î [A 106]
Once this is understoodóonce it is understood that the word ìdescendî can be
interpreted in the sense of coming down in position, or in rank because of having
lost status, or in the sense of ìcondescend,î which is to lower oneself through
humility and benevolence by omitting all of those acts that bring with them the
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high status of the noble and rich, then it only remains to consider in which of the
three senses to which the word ìdescendî is given may it reasonably be
permissible to refer [to God].
[58.6] As for descent being a downward path, reason holds it to be impossible
[that this would apply to God], as we said previously. For, that movement is not
possible except with respect to beings that occupy a place in space. As for [it
being] a lowering of status, that is also impossible, since God most high is eternal
in his attributes and in his glorious majesty, of which it is impossible that he
should be deprived. As for descent understood in the sense of condescension,
benevolence, and the omission of those acts that are [usual] for one who is
wealthy and in need of nothingóthis sense is possible, that descent may be
predicated of God.
[58.10] And it is said that when the speech of God most high came down
saying ì[His is] the highest estate and he hath the throne,î the companions of the
Prophet were overcome by a [A 107] great fear. They lost the confidence needed
to make their pleas to a being endowed with such overwhelming majesty. But
then it was explained to them [by the Prophet] that despite his majesty and the
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exaltedness of his state above his servants, God most high was merciful to them,
and solicitous of them, and would listen to their petitions. Now then, answering
petitions is a veritable condescension in relation the height of Godís majesty and
self-sufficiency. And so the use of the term ìdescendî was to encourage the
hearts of people to offer their petitions and even to bow and prostrate themselves
before him. For, someone who is overcome with fear before the majesty of God
most high, will feel inadequate [even] to bow and prostrate himself before him.
[59.4] The [collective] offerings of all men, when compared to the majesty of
God most high, would be something more base and contemptible than the
meager movement of just one finger made by a slave in order to endear himself
to the king of the land. And if that slave were to attempt to honor any king in
such a way, it is certain that he would be deserving of lively punishments for it.
In fact, it is the custom of kings to sever from their service men of base condition,
not allowing that such people should prostrate themselves to them and that they
should not even kiss the doorpost of their palaces, because it is beneath them that
any other than princes and nobility should serve them [A 108], as has been the
custom among some caliphs. And if the Most High did not condescend from his
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exalted majesty in mercy and benevolence, it is for certain that the hearts of men,
astounded by the majesty of his glorious presence, would lose their command of
reason so as to think, their tongues so as to make mention of him,216 and their
members would lose the power of movement. Thus, whoever reflects on how
great the divine majesty is and, at the same time, how great the divine
condescension, will understand without any kind of doubt that the metaphorical
sense of the word ìdescentî is in perfect harmony with the majesty of God and
with the semantic value that that term has in the Arabic language, though it is
not just as the ignorant would understand it.217
[60.1] But someone might still say, ìIs it not the case that [the Qurʾan]
specifies that the heavens [belong to] the world?î218 We would say this refers to
[the worldís] rank as last, below which there is no other, such as when it is said,
ìHe has come down even to the earth and he has ascended even unto the
Pleiades,î in the supposition that the Pleiades are the highest stars and the earth
the lowest place of all.219
[60.4] Does it not specifically say [in the Qurʾan] that [God] descends by
night, saying, ìHe descends every nightî? We would say this is because in
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solitude is the most appropriate condition in which [A 109] to pray, and the night
is precisely the best time to be alone, since that is when all the world sleeps and
when, therefore, the remembrance of created things is most easily erased and the
soul of one who prays feels more inclined to the remembrance of God most high.
Such a prayer is precisely the kind that might most be hoped to be heard by
God, not [the prayer] that comes from distracted hearts full of mundane
concerns.
Ninth Proposition
[60.9] We propose that God most exalted and high, is visible, contrary to [the
claims of] the Muʿtazilites. There are two reasons why we treat this problem in
this first part, which is dedicated to the study of the being of God most high:
First, is because to deny visibility with respect to a being logically leads to a
denial of all spatial relation for him.220 But we want to show how the negation of
all spatial relation with God can be reconciled with the affirmation that he is
visible. Second, because the most high [61] is, according to us, visible in his
being, by the existence of his essence and not by reason of some of his acts or
attributes. Indeed every being of actual essence must necessarily be visible, just
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as he must be cognizable. But I do not mean to say by this that he has to be
cognizable and visible in act, but rather in potencyóthat is, by reason of his
essence he can be the object of vision without there being in his same essence any
obstacle or impossibility to his being seen, so that if some obstacle were to
impede the reality of the vision, it would be an obstacle that was extrinsic to his
essence, such as when we say that the water in the river is capable of quenching
thirst and [A 111] that the wine in the vessel is capable of intoxicating, when that
is not exactly so, because drunkenness and satiety are effects contingent upon the
act of drinking. Nevertheless, it is correct because it is understood to mean that
both liquids are capable of producing those effects. This [proposition that God is
visible] can be shown in two ways:
[61.8] The first is by showing that it is logically possible. The second is by the
actual fact [of the vision of God], which can have no greater demonstration than
that of revelation.221 Once the fact is demonstrated, the possibility is also
demonstrated, but let us nevertheless first prove the possibility [of seeing God]
through two rational arguments.
[61.11] In the first we say that the Creator most high is a being and an essence
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having reality and positive [existence] and differing from all other beings only by
the impossibility of his being temporal, as they are, or of possessing any attribute
that entails this temporality or that contradicts [62] the divine attributes of
knowledge, power, and so forth.222 As a consequence, everything else that can in
truth be affirmed of [other] existent beings is also true for the reality of God, so
long as it does not argue for temporality or contradict any of the [divine]
attributes. And so it goes with Godís ìcognoscibility.î God can be the object of
knowledge without this causing any change in his essence or implying any
contradiction with respect to his attributes or suggesting temporality in his
existence. Thus there exists between God on the one hand and bodies and
accidents on the other a perfect [A 112] equality with respect to the possibility
that their essences and attributes be objects of knowledge. And vision is a kind of
knowledge that does not imply any kind of alteration in the attributes of the
object that is seen, nor does it suggest temporality; therefore, [the possibility of
vision with respect to God] must be concluded, as with respect to every other
being.223
[62.7] But someone might say, ìGodís being visible requires that he be in a
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place, and that requires that he must be accident or substance, which is absurd.
Put in the form of a syllogism, the argument is as follows: If God were visible, he
would have to be on one side [or another] of the observer; but this result is
absurd; therefore, so is the visibility of God.î We say that we concede to you one
of the two premises of this syllogism, to whit: ìThis result is absurdî; we reject,
on the other hand, the first premise, which is that that result of necessity derives
from the dogma of divine visibility.
[62.12] Why do you affirm that ìIf God were visible, he would have to be on
one side [or another] of the observer?î Do you know the truth of this premise by
immediate evidence or by reasoning? There is no way to claim it is by direct
evidence, and if it is by reasoning then surely you can show it to us. Now then,
the closest the opponents have come to making such a demonstration is to affirm
that they have never up till this time seen anything that was not on some specific
side [A 113] with respect to the observer. But to that demonstration it may be
replied that from what has never been seen no judgment can be made about
what is [63] impossible, since if that were allowed it would also be allowed for
the anthropomorphist to affirm that God most high is body, because he is active.
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It is just that we have never yet seen any actual being save it was a body. But
now [the Muʿtazilites] might say that if God is an actual and existent being, he
must be either in or out of this world, either contiguous with or separated from
it, and so he cannot but have six sides, since no existent is known that is not thus.
And so there is no difference224 between you and those [anthropomorphists].
Thus the essence of their objection [always] reduces to proclaiming that [given]
what is seen and known, it must be that nothing else can [ever] be understood
except on that same basis. It is like someone who knows bodies and yet denies
accident saying that if such a thing existed it would occupy a place of its own in
space that would preclude other accidents from being [in that same place] by
reason if its being a body. Now then, this is the same as claiming that it is
impossible for beings to exist as distinct from other [beings] in certain essential
properties that pertain to them while [at the same time] sharing other properties
in common. Such an affirmation is without any foundation, to say nothing of the
[other] argument against them, which they cannot have failed to notice, that God
can see himself and see the world with no need for being on any [particular] side
[A 114] with respect to himself or with respect to the world. If that be the case,
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then their objection is demolished, and this is what the majority of the
Muʿtazilites now recognize, for there is no escaping it for any who admits that
God knows himself and knows the world. And if someone denies that this is
true, still he cannot deny that at least man can see himself in the mirror, and it is
well-known that this happens without the viewer being in front of himself. And
if the opponents claim that the man does not actually see himself but rather that
he only sees an image that is a copy of his form that is thrown on the mirror in
the same way that the shadow image of a person is thrown on a wall, then one
should respond to them saying that that is obviously impossible.
[64.1] If the observer distances himself two cubits from a mirror hanging on a
wall, he will see his image distanced from the body of the mirror by two cubits;
and if he goes three cubits, so shall [the image]. Now then, that image that is
distanced from the mirror by two cubits, how can it at the same time be
imprinted in the mirror when the thickness of the mirror is no more than the
thickness of a grain of barley? That the image is being held by something behind
the mirror is impossible, since behind the mirror there is nothing more than the
wall, or air, or another person that is hidden from the viewer who cannot see
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him. Likewise with the right and left, the above and below and all of the six sides
of the mirror: when the observer sees the image distanced two cubits from the
mirror and that image is sought on any of the [six sides] adjoining the mirror, it
is [always] found [in front of] the mirror. [A 115] Now then, that image that is
seen has nothing that causes it to resemble any of the bodies around the mirror
except the body of the one looking in the mirror; so that person must be the
object seen, without any need for him to be standing in front of himself, nor,
therefore, in a specific place in space.225
[64.10] The Muʿtazilites have no way out of this. We know of necessity that if
a person had never seen himself or known what a mirror was, and he were told,
ìYou can see yourself in a mirror,î he would think that was impossible and
would say, ìThat could not happen except I myself see myself being inside the
mirror, which is impossible; or I see something like my form that is inside the
body of the mirror, which is [also] impossible; or [65] I see a resemblance to my
image in the body of the mirroróthat is, in the body [of the mirror] while I am
looking at it, which is [also] impossible. [This is] because the mirror in and of
itself has a form, and bodies that are around it [A 116] have [other] forms, and it
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cannot be that the two forms combine in one body. For it is impossible that the
forms of man, iron, and wall should exist in one body.226 That I should see myself
as myself is absurd. For, if I am not in front of myself, how can I see myself,
since there must be an opposing relation between the viewer and what is seen?î
[65.5] Now, this is a correct analysis according to the Muʿtazilites, and yet it is
well known that it is false. Its falsity comes, in our opinion, when he says, ìIf I
am not in front of myself, I cannot see myself.î227 Except for this point of the
foregoing analysis, the rest of the arguments are accurate. In this way is shown
the ease with which those [Muʿtazilites] are prone to assent to the truth of facts to
which they are not accustomed and which their senses have not discerned.
[65.8] The second method [for showing that God is visible]228 is the open
vision. It consists in saying that if the opponent refuses to admit the visibility of
God, it is only because he does not understand what is meant by ìvision,î nor
has he been able to penetrate what it really signifies. He thinks that by ìvisionî
we mean a state equivalent to the state that occurs with an observer when he
looks at bodies and colors. But it is no such thing. For we know the impossibility
of that with respect to the essence of God most high. So we must analyze the
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meaning of the word ìvisionî in relation to the context to which it is being
applied, to [A 117] formulate it [properly], and then discard from it those
[meanings] that are incompatible with the essence of God most high. If there
should remain of those meanings one that is not incompatible with the essence of
God most high and that can be called ìvisionî in all truth, then we shall affirm it
[66] with respect to God most high and we shall conclude that he is truly visible.
On the other hand, if it is not possible to use the name ìvisionî except in a
metaphorical sense, then we shall use that word when revelation enjoins us to,
but understanding it in the sense that reason indicates to us that it should be
understood.229
[66.2] An analysis [of the process of vision] shows that it basically consists of
a locus,230 which is the eye, and an object, which is color, extension, body, and
other visible things. Let us consider, then, the reality of its meaningóof its locus
and of its objectóand let us determine which of all those elements might be true
for the word [ìvisionî with respect to God].
[66.6] Now, as for the locus [of vision], we say that that is not where the true
meaning of the word lies, for if the phenomena that we see with the eye through
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sight were [instead] perceived by us with the heart or the forehead,231 for
example, we would also certainly say that we had ìseenî the thing and ìbeheldî
it, and we would have spoken accurately, because the eyeólocus and organ of
visionóhas no meaningful value in itself except that the phenomenon of vision
takes place in it. As long as the phenomenon [of vision] takes place [whether in
the eye or in another subject,] the reality of that condition is fulfilled and that
word [ìvisionî] can rightly be applied to it.
[66.10] Since we say that we know with our heart [A 118] or with our mind
when we perceive something through the heart or through the mind; so likewise
we can ìseeî with the heart, or with the forehead, or with the eyes.
[66.12] As for the object232 [of sight] in its essence,233 here [also] there is no
support for the use of the word [ìvision,î] nor any real certainty about it. For, if
vision were vision [just] because its object was black, then it would not be vision
when its object were white. If [67] [vision were vision only insofar as] its object
were color [in general], then whatever had movement as its object would not be
vision. If its object was accident, then whatever had body as its object would not
be vision. This demonstrates that the particular qualities of the object [of vision]
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are not the essence upon which this actual phenomenon rests, or the basis for the
use of the word [ìvisionî]. Rather, there is a basis for it insofar as it has as its
object any quality that has actual existence, whatever it be, or any essence,
whatever it be. Thus, the basis upon which the word ìvisionî depends will be
the third elementóthat is, the reality of the meaning without any relation to its
subject or its object.
[67.6] Let us consider, then, this reality. What is it? There is no reality to it
except a kind of perception that is more complete and lucid than imagination. If
we see a friend, for example, and then close our eyes, the image of the friend is
there in our mind in an imaginative and representative way. But if we then open
our eyes again, we will note well the difference. [A 119] This difference, however,
does not consist in that now we see a completely different figure than what we
had before in imagination; on the contrary, the image seen with the eyes exactly
corresponds to the imagined one without any difference. There are no differences
between the two other than that the second is like the perfection of the
imaginative state and a clarification of it. The image of the friend is renewed in
clarity within us upon opening our eyes and is more complete and perfect [than
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before]. But this image that reappears upon [opening] the eyes coincides with the
image that existed in the imagination. Therefore, imagination is a kind of
perception, [but] to a degree beyond which there exists another degree of
perception more perfect in terms of clarity and lucidity and which is like its
completion. This completion [68] of perception with respect to the imagination is
sight and vision.
[68.2] So it is [also] with things we know and do not just imagineóand
[among such] is the being of God most high, his attributes, and anything that has
no form, neither color, nor extensionósuch as, for example, power, knowledge,
love, sight, and imagination. We know all of these thingsówe do not imagine
themóand the knowledge that we have of them is a kind of perception. We now
see, then, that if reason has its limits, it may have a completing mode of
perception that is to it what sight is to imagination. If this is so, then we might
call that perception that is lucid and perfect in relation to knowledge ìvision,î
just as we use the word [A 120] ìvisionî in relation to imagination.
[68.7] Now then, it is known that this idea of the existence of a degree of
greater perfection in clarity and lucidity than simple knowledge has nothing
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absurd in it with respect to cognizable existents that cannot be imaged, such as
knowledge, power, and so forth, and likewise with respect to the being of God
most high and his attributes. Indeed, it might be said that human nature itself
instinctively seeks to achieve that greater clarity about the essence of God and his
attributes and about the essence of all of those ideal realities.
[68.11] And we affirm that such [clarity] is not impossible, not only because
there is nothing incompatible with it, but because reason demonstrates its
possibilityóindeed, insists on it. It is just that such knowledge most perfect and
clear is not granted in this world because the soul, preoccupied in the
governance of the body, its native purity and cleanliness tainted by the
impurities of the world, is hindered as though by a veil from having such
perception. For just as it is not absurd [69] that the eyelid or the veil or darkness
over the eye are causes that ordinarily hinder vision of imaginable objects,
neither is it going too far [to say] that for the soul the accumulation of
preoccupations are like veils that ordinarily hinder the sight of intelligible objects
and that, when the dead return from the graves and what was in the breasts of
men [A 121] is brought forth and hearts are cleansed by drinking the water of
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purification and are purged with many kinds of cleansing and expurgation,234
then there will be no more burden preventing them from achieving that greater
perception and clarity concerning the essence of God most high, or of the rest of
intelligible things. And that elevation to a superior degree [of intellect] will be
comparable to the way sight [perfects] imagination. And let it be referred to as
ìthe encounter with God most high,î or ìthe witness of him,î or ìthe vision of
him,î ìthe sight of him,î or whatever you like, for there is no need to argue over
terms once the intended meanings are understood.235 And if all this is possible,
and if [God] were to create within the human eye [the ability to see him], then
the word ìvision,î would be the most preferable when the obvious meaning of
the language is considered. Now, it is not impossible for him to [thus] create in
the eye, just as it is not impossible for him to create in the heart. And thus, if it is
understood what the orthodox236 mean when they use the word ìvisionî [with
respect to God], it will be known that reason does not reject it, but indeed
requires it, and that revelation bears witness to it. No reason remains, then, to
reject this view except for the sake of disputation or to cast doubt on the
appropriateness of the word ìvisionî or because of the inability of [A 122] the
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opponent to perceive the nuanced ideas that we have mentioned. So, in this
compendium we will limit ourselves to this.
[69.14] The second part237 of [this proof] is established by revelation.
Revelation has demonstrated that the vision of God does occur. Many are the
revealed texts that attest this. [70] Their great number is an indication of the
unanimity with which those first believers of Islam humbly asked of God most
gracious that he would grant them the pleasure of beholding his beautiful face.
We verily know from their declarations of faith that they were seeking as much,
that they understood that it was permissible to seek for it, and that they asked it
of God most high according to the recitation238 of the foremost messenger of God
(may the blessings and peace of God be upon him). [We know this, further, by]
an [almost] innumerable collection of his very clear sayings and a consensus that
demonstrates [this fact] beyond the limitations of sense perception.239 One of the
most powerful [witnesses] that demonstrates this [possibility of seeing God] is
Mosesí saying (peace be upon him), ìShow yourself to me, that I might behold
you.î240 It [seems] impossible that one of the prophets of God most highóa
prophet whose station was such that God (to him be glory) would speak directly
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to himówould be ignorant about something with respect to the divine essence
that the Muʿtazilites are not. This ìknowledgeî [on the part of the Muʿtazilites]
is necessarily [A 123] a vanity on their part, because, according to them, for their
opponents not to know that in his being [God] cannot be seen must be called
heresy and error since it is ignorance of an attribute of God. For, the impossibility
[of the vision of God] proceeds, according to [the Muʿtazilites], from the divine
essence in that he is not in any place. But then, how is it possible that Moses
(peace be upon him) could know that [God] does not occupy place and yet not
know that a vision of a being that does not occupy place is impossible? What is it
that the opponent would prefer to suppose escaped the notice of Moses [peace be
upon him]? [71] Would he prefer to suppose that he sincerely believed that [God]
is a physical body, endowed with color and occupying a place? To do so would
be to accuse the prophets of heresy, since such an accusation against the prophet
(peace be upon him) would itself be blatant heresy. To say that God most high
has a body is the same thing as to worship idols or the sun.
[71.3] On the other hand, perhaps [the opponent] would say that [Moses]
knew that it was absurd that God should occupy space, but that he did not know
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that what does not occupy space cannot be seen. This would make the prophet
(peace upon him) as one ignorant, since the opponent considers that this premise
is based on immediate evidences, not on theoretical reflections. Now then, O
seeker of truth, it is up to you to decide. Either you are inclined to call a prophet
ignorant, or you would prefer to call the Muʿtazilites ignorant. Chose for
yourself what you think is most appropriate and be settled!
[71.7] If it is said, ìIf these [words of Moses] argue in your favor they may
also argue against you, because [A 124] he asks if he might see [God] in this
world. Also arguing against you are when the Most High says, ìYou shall not see
me.î241 Likewise, his words (may he be praised), ìNo vision can apprehend
himî242 also argue [against you].
[71.9] We say: [Mosesí] asking to see [God] in this world is proof that he did
not know when the vision should take place but that it was a possible act as far
as he was concerned. Prophets (upon them be peace) do not know about future
events except the ones that they are informed of [by God], which are few in
number. How, then, would it be incongruent that the prophet should seek the
revelation of a mystery or relief from distress, hoping for it in a time that was not
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appointed for it to be revealed in the knowledge of God most high? As for Godís
saying, ìYou shall not see me,î this was a denial to the request of Moses in that
he asked for [the vision] in the here and now, not the hereafter. If [Moses] had
said, ìShow yourself unto me that I might behold you in the hereafter,î and
[God] had said, ìYou shall not see me,î then this would indeed have been an
evidence against the visibility [of God]. But even in this case it would have only
been with respect to Moses in particular and not in general with respect to all
other people. Therefore, not even that would have been proof of the impossibility
of the vision. And how much less could it be [A 125] if [that response] were in
answer to a request [to see him] in the present moment?
[72.6] As for the other text that says, ìNo vision can apprehend him,î it
means that they do not comprehend him or embrace him from all sides, like
[ocular] vision comprehends or embraces bodies, and this is true. Or it might
well mean generally to know [him] in this world, and this is also true, as it is
precisely the same as the meaning of his saying (exalted be he), ìYou shall not
see me,îóthat is, in this world. But let us curtail this study of the problem of the
visibility [of God], only let the careful reader note how the different theological
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sects are divided by this question into parties for one excess and another.
[72.11] The Ḥashwiyya243 cannot comprehend a being that does not exist in a
place, so they affirm that God exists in a place, which obligates them to predicate
corporeality, extension, and the [other] specificities of temporal beings [of him].
[72.13] The Muʿtazilites, on the other hand, deny [that God is in] a place, but
being incapable of comprehending the vision of a being that has none, they
openly contradict the revealed doctrine on this point, believing that by allowing
[the vision of God], they would have to also allow that God has a place. These
last, then, in order to avoid the danger of falling into anthropomorphism, commit
themselves to the via negativa244 but fall into excess [therein]. On the other hand,
the [A 126] Ḥashwiyya affirm that [God is in] a place in order to avoid the
danger of denying the divine attributes245 and so fall into anthropomorphism.
Only unto the ahl al-sunna, has God most high granted [grace] in order to
establish the true doctrine and to discern the just balance [in belief] in order to do
so. They know that [being in] a place should be denied of God because it is a
consequence and complement of corporeality. [On the other hand, they maintain]
that the vision of God is something real because it is a kind of knowledge,
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coming afterwards [in the next world], being the perfection [of knowledge].
Now, denying corporeality of God impels them to deny place [with respect to
God, which is one of the inseparable characteristics of [corporeality]. But to
affirm the cognoscibility [of God] impels them to affirm his visibility, which is a
consequence and the perfection of [cognoscibility], partaking of its basic nature
in that it does not imply any change in the essence of the thing seen, but rather
relates to it only in that the result is like knowledge. There can be no doubt to
someone with intelligence that this is moderation in belief.246
The Tenth Proposition
[73.9] We propose that God most high is one and that his being one pertains
positively to his essence and is excluded from any other. It is not to be
considered as an attribute that is superadded to the essence [of God], so mention
of it should occur in this [first] part [of the treatise].
[73.10] We say that [the word] ìoneî can be taken and understood in the
sense of that which does not admit of divisionóthat is to say, it has no quantity,
no perimeter,247 and no extension. Thus, the Creator most high is one, meaning
that he is not quantifiable, meaning that quantification denies somethingís
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wholeness by dividing it. But [God] is not divisible, since divisibility pertains to
things that are quantifiable.248 Quantification results in division into parts,
becoming smaller. [74] But that which is not quantifiable cannot be described as
divisible. Furthermore, [ìoneî] can be understood as that which has no equal in
its rank, such as when we say that the sun is one [A 128]. In this sense also the
Creator most high is one, since he has no peer. And that he has no complement249
is also clear, since what is understood by complement is that which follows
another in the same substrate without joining to it; and a being that has no
substrate also has no complement. The Creator most high has no substrate;
therefore, he has no complement.
[74.5] As for our saying that [God] has no peer, we mean that he is the creator
of that which is other than he, none other. The demonstration for this is that if an
associate [to God] is posited, [the associate] would either be like him in all
aspects, superior to him, or inferior to him. But all of this is impossible, and so is
the hypothesis that leads to the impossibility. The impossibility that another
should be like him in every respect consists in that each of the two beings is
distinct from the other. For if there were no distinction between the two beings
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then they could not be conceived of as being two. For we do not think of two
black colors unless they are in two [different] substrates, or in one substrate at
two different times. Thus, one of the two must be distinguished, differentiated,
and diversified from the otherówhether by substrate or whether by time. The
two things may also be distinguished from each other by differences in definition
and essence,250 such as differences in movement and color. For, though
combining in one substrate at one time, they are nevertheless two, since one of
them is distinguished from the other in its essence. But if two things coincide in
their essence and definition, such as black, then the distinction [75] between [A
129] them would have to be in the substrate or in the time [of their occurrence].
For if we were to suppose two instances of black in a single substance and
circumstance, it would be absurd, since their duality would not be
distinguishable. If it were possible to say that they were two and yet not
different, then it would also be possible to point to one man and say that he was
two or even ten men, only that they were all alike and equal in quality, place, in
all of their accidents and accessory properties, without any distinction, which is
necessarily absurd. Now then, if the supposed peer of God most high were the
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same as him in essence and in attributes, his existence would become absurd,
because he would be indistinguishable in space (since [God is] devoid of place)
and time (since [God] is timeless and eternal). Thus, there would be no
distinction between either of them. And with every distinction erased, then
number necessarily is erased and singularity follows per force.251
[75.7] It is also absurd to say that [Godís supposed peer] is distinguished from
him in that he is superior or of a more elevated status, since that being who is
higher [than God] would then be God, since ìGodî indicates the most noble and
sublime of all beings. Therefore, the other [of the two] would necessarily be
imperfect and, therefore, not God. For, if we negate number with respect to God
it is because God is the being [A 130] who is affirmed in absolute [terms] to be
the most noble and excellent of all beings that are.
[75.10} Furthermore, if [Godís supposed peer] were inferior to him, [the
hypothesis] would also be absurd because he would be imperfect, and as we
understand God to be the most noble of all beings that exist, there cannot be save
one being that is most noble, and that is God. It cannot be conceived that there
are two which are equals in the attributes of this highest excellence, since in that
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case the distinctions between the two would be eliminated, thus, the number
would be done away, as we previously said.
[76.2] If it is said, ìWhy do you reject someone who does not dispute the
existence of a being to which the name God applies (understanding by ìGodî the
most excellent of existent beings) but who nevertheless says that the world, taken
as a whole, is not the creation of just one creator, but rather the work of two
creators of which one might be, for example, the creator of the sky, and the other
the creator of the earth; or perhaps, one the creator of inanimate beings and the
other the creator of the animals and plants? Where is the impossibility in this?
For if there is nothing that proves the impossibility of this hypothesis, then what
does it help you to say that the name of God does not apply to those beings? For
such an opponent understands ìgodî to mean ìcreator.î Or he says that one of
those two is the creator of good and the other of evil, or one the creator of
substances and the other of accidents. It is, therefore, indispensable that you
demonstrate the impossibility of this hypothesis.
[76.10] We say: The proof of its impossibility is this: All of these divisions of
creatures between two [A 131} creators posited [by the opponent] can be reduced
203
to two options. Either the creation of the totality of substances and accidents is
divided between the two of them, so that one of them creates some bodies and
accidents without the other, or all bodies are said to be [the creation] of one and
all accidents [the creation] of the other.
[76.13] But it would be an error to say that some bodies were created by [just]
one of them, such as the sky, for example, without the earth. [77] For, we ask: Is
the creator of the sky capable of creating the earth or not? If he is as capable of
doing the one thing as he is the other, then there would be no difference between
the one agent with power and the other, and no difference between one act of
power and another. Both agents would be capable of the same act, and there
could be no relationship between them in which one was preeminent over the
other. And so the same absurdity that we discussed earlier comes about by
positing the simultaneous existence of two beings that are like one another
without any difference. This is absurd.
[77.4] Now, if [the creator of the heaven] is not capable [of creating the earth],
then the hypothesis is also absurd since corporeal substances are in themselves
all the same in terms of the mode of existing that is proper to them for their
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particular relations. So someone who is capable of creating such things must also
be able to create their like, since his power is eternal in the sense that he can have
various created things as his object. Now then, the power of both of these two
[creators] pertains to a certain number of bodies and substances, so it is not
limited to one object. Therefore, if the relation [A 132] between [that power] and
one object of power is be applied to other temporal objects, then there is no
reason to limit its reach to one set of possible objects rather than another; rather,
it must be concluded that the number of its possible objects has no limit or is
infiniteóthat is to say, that all substances may come about through his power.252
[77.10] The second part [of the objection], saying that one of the two [creators]
has power to create substances and the other to create accidents and that the
power of the one is necessarily different from that of the other is also absurd. For,
accident cannot exist without substance, nor can substance exist without
accident.253 The actualization of each one of them is dependent on the other. If the
creator of accidents desires to create one, how will he be able to create it? Perhaps
the creator of substance does not want to help the creator of accident, and when
he wants to create the accident, the other might refuse to create the substance
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and the other would be incapacitated [78] and foiledóthat is to say, powerless.
Likewise, if the creator of substance desired to create it, the creator of the
accident could oppose him and keep him from doing so resulting in a mutual
hindrance.254
[78.3] If it is said, ìPerhaps one of them [A 133] wanted to create substance,
and the other assisted him by creating accident, or vice versa.î We would say: Is
such help so necessary and mandatory that human reason cannot conceive its
nonexistence or not? Because if you claim it to be necessary, that is how you
want to resolve the problem. But it also denies the power [of both creators],
because the creation of substance that is brought about by one would require the
other to create the accident, and visa versa. So [neither] would have power to
refrain, and therefore, there is no real power under such conditions. In summary,
if the help can be withheld, then it is contingent, and the act will be unlikely,
which annuls the meaning of power. And if the help is necessary,255 then the
agent that cannot do without it would be a compelled agent devoid, therefore, of
power.
[78.10] It might be said, ìLet there be, then, one creator of good and another
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creator of evil.î
[78.11] We say: This is foolishness because evil is not evil essentially. Rather,
in terms of essence evil is equivalent to good and is like it.256 The power to bring
something about is [also] the power to bring something that is like it about. The
cremation of a Muslimís body is an evil; the cremation of the body of an
unbeliever is a good and an avoidance of an evil. So, according to this, if a person
pronounces the profession of faith,257 [79] then cremation in his case [A 134]
becomes an evil. But it is the same power to burn flesh in fire that exists whether
the subject has not uttered or has uttered the profession of faith. The sound of
[the voice uttering] the formula does not change the essence of the flesh, the fire,
or cremation and does not transform genera. Thus, cremations being all alike, the
power to cause all of them must also be the same.
[79.4] [Furthermore, if true, the opponentís proposal] would lead to the same
mutual hindrance and reciprocal impediment [between the two creators that we
spoke of before]. Thus, in summary, however the matter is cast it will always
backfire and engender [its own] destruction, which is what God most high
means when he says, ìIf there were in both [the heavens and earth] other gods
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besides God, [surely both] would be destroyed.î258 Nothing exceeds the Qurʾān
in clarity.
[79.6] And with this tenth proposition we close this first part; for of the
subjects that belong to it none remain to be discussed except the impossibility
that [God] is subject to temporal things. But to this problem we will allude in the
course of the treatise on the divine attributes as we refute those who affirm the
temporality of knowledge, will, and other [attributes of God].
208
Notes
141 Al-ʿalam: This could also be translated as ìcosmos.î The whole created
order is intended.
142 Aṣl: I usually translate this term as premise, but in this context ìbasisî or
ìprincipialityî is more apt.
143 Jawharan fardan: This could also be rendered as ìatom,î however, unless
the context demands otherwise, my preference is to translate jawhar as
ìsubstance.î See my discussion of this in the introductory essay.
144 Here I adopt the singular rather than the plural form of this term,
following the alternate reading given in the critical apparatus of the Arabic
editon.
145 Ghazālī is having a bit of fun here at his opponentís expense by pointing
out that his very protests against the existence of accidentsóand all of the other
actions he mentionsóare themselves accidents by definition.
146 Murajjih: An alternative gloss of this term would be ìthat which gives
preponderance.î
147 In Creation and the Cosmic System, 28ñ29, Richard Frank discusses this
passage. He is working to show how Ghazālī varied in the language and
concepts he used when discussing causality in different contexts. He suggests
that Ghazālīís use of murajjih (which we translate here as ìdeciding factorî) is a
borrowing from Avicenna (see in particular his note 44, loc. cit.). But this is rather
beside the point. No one disputes that Ghazālī borrowed terminology from the
falasifah, but this is not to say he adopted their cosmology or theories of
causation. In other writings, Ghazālī uses this term to refer to God, a reading that
is not at all inconsistent with his less explicit usage here.
148 Referring to the premise that the interlocutor first chose to have
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investigated, to wit: ìevery temporal thing has a cause,î at 25.6, above.
149 Ghazālī has not yet addressed this hypothetical objection, let alone rejected
it. The question posed here simply allows him to examine in greater detail the
second of the two premises mentioned earlieróthe one that was initially passed
over for discussion.
150 By this usage Ghazālī presumably means single atomsóthat is, single
substancesóthe irreducible constituents of bodies.
151 This is not exactly a precise restatement of the premise as just presented. In
particular the identification of ìspatial beingî with ìbodyî is notable. This would
be based, presumably, on the acceptance by the opponent of the definition of
body offered earlier (at 24.13) as that which occupies space and is differentiated
(having parts).
152 This argument is an example of a proclivity Ghazālī will demonstrate
throughout this workóthat is, to cut to the chase. He is here arguing from a
pragmatic perspective. He does not want to get bogged down trying to prove
something that he seems to feel nearly any reasonable person would concede as
true on its face anyway. He wants to get to the more interesting, substantive
questions.
Al-Ghazālīís pragmatic brevity in the Iqtiṣāḍ, which contains his first account
of physical theory from a kalam point of view, sometimes means that we are left
with not enough information to determine what he actually believe on certain
points. For an example, Aloor Dhanani notes that ìAl-Ghazālīís pragmatic view
of kalām is far from the convictions of al-Juwaynī and other mutakallimūn who
hold that the discussions of kalām are about the way things really areî rather than
about ìguiding some errant souls to right practice and belief.î Thus, he says,
ìthe text [of Iqtiṣāḍ] does not allow us to draw conclusions about Ghazālīís
endorsement of theories of discrete space, time, and motion, nor about his
210
acceptance of voidî (ìAl-Ghazālīís Attitude,î 18ñ21).
153 Al-Ghazālī uses al-anāṣir al-ārbaʿah here rather than the al-usÅaquss (of Greek
or Syriac derivation?), the preferred term among the falāsifah. Thus, even when
discussing their doctrines he avoids their technical terms. See the notes to 19.7
above, and cf. Walzer, On the Perfect State, 136ñ137, and 564, s.v. ìelement.î
154 Thus, though they are temporal, they nevertheless have the appearance of
something everlasting, like the heavenly spheres alluded to just before.
155 The notion of four elements from which all things are composed has its
roots in the earliest traces of Greek philosophy. Thales, Anaximander, and
Anaximenes all proffered theories of underlying element or elements from which
all the varieties of nature arise. And the cosmology of Plato and the physics of
Aristotle both offer accounts for earth, water, fire, and air as basic forms of
matter.
156 Biíl-ḍarūra: Throughout his oeuvre, Ghazalī uses this term both in the usual
kalam wayówhen logical necessity that is beyond any further need for proof is
meantóand more idiosyncratically ìwhen he talks of empirical or emotional
phenomena, and when he puts forward theories based on assumptions or
feelings onlyî (Lazarus-Yafeh, Studies, 60ñ61).
157 Kāna hādithan: The term I usually translate as ìtemporalî here needs to be
given its specific connotation of originating in time.
158 In other words, movement or rest occur to substances without altering their
basic essence or being, so movement and rest must be something in addition to
substance. Asín translates this passage rather differently and confusedly.
159 Presumably, in other works of kalam.
160 ʿIkhtiṣāṣ: The idea is of something that particularizes substance,
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differentiating it from other substance. Here, the substanceís location
distinguishes it from other substance, adding specificity to it.
161 This is a difficult passage and I have tried to retain some of its vagueness in
the translation. Nevertheless, I have added interpolations that give a reading that
I believe to be borne out by the rest of Ghazālīís discussion.
162 The result is an infinite regress of accidents subsisting in accidents, a
consequence that was generally considered impossible by the mutakalimūn.
163 As I follow this argument, Ghazālī means that the specification of accident
by substrate is essential while the specification of substance by (a given) place is
something superadded to its essence (and therefore, not essential). This analysis
of his argument informs some of the interpolations I make in the passages that
follow, particularly in supplying referents in place of pronouns that would
otherwise be ambiguous.
164 Presumably thabit here should be regarded in its fully nuanced sense of
something that is fixed not only with respect to position, but alsoóand more
importantlyówith respect to its ontological status as something real rather than
mawhūm, imaginary.
165 Al-ḥayyiz al-muʿayin: This is an important point that helps us to understand
Ghazālīís meaning. In speaking of substance being specified by place
nonessentially, Ghazālī means that the essence of substance does not depend on
its being in any one particular place or another. Its specificity there is something
superadded to the essence. The argument might go rather differently if Ghazālī
were speaking of place in generalói.e., if he were addressing the question as to
whether substance is essentially spatial (always existing in some place or not at
all). On that count Ghazālī has a very different point to make, for which, see his
definition of substance earlier in this section.
212
166 This description of motion as being a transfer of substance from one place
to the next is pertinent to the occasionalism to which Ghazālī subscribed as an
Ashʿarite. Ghazālī discusses occasionalist motion in greater detail below (37.5
ff.).
167 More literally, ìits essence;î the intent is that the height is annihilated in its
essence.
168 Recall that Ghazālī has indicated that by ìtransferî he means ìthe transit of
substance from place to placeî (29.6).
169 These interpolations represent my understanding of what is admittedly a
very terse passage. My thanks to Michael E. Marmura for his efforts to help me
decode it, though I remain responsible for this reading.
170 Again, more literally, ìthe essence.î
171 I disagree with Frankís reading of this passage, which he cites to show that
Ghazālīís intention here ìmight well have been to eliminate the occupation of
space from the conception and definition of the jawhar as suchî (Frank, Al-Ghazālī
and the Ashʿarite School, 49). On Frankís reading, it would seem, Ghazālī intends
to say (contrary to Ghazālīís own claim early in this same section) that substance
is not spatial. This seems to do violence to the integrity of Ghazālīís discussion
solely for the purpose of establishing a claim that remains as yet unpersuasiveó
that Ghazālī was, at least in part, a crypto-Aristotelian.
172 This is admittedly a rather curious ploy. Ghazālī, rather than using a more
precise example (involving something that squarely fits the definition of
accident), has opted to use an approximation. Several questions pertaining to his
choice might be raised. For instance, how might the example of color rather than
height (as accident) have affected (weakened) his claim that accidents inhere
essentially in their substrates and that as one is annihilated, so must the other be?
213
173 I read this as meaning that the explanations of other theologians have been
unsatisfactory and that Ghazālī is therefore pausing to answer a desideratum,
not that his own admittedly labored explanation has been found wanting.
174 This premise is first stated in [16.11].
175 Ghazālīís use of so many synonyms here is somewhat unusual, especially
since they are cognates of one another and, as he himself admits, make no
difference in the argument of his point. Perhaps he is using them precisely to
make the point that it is the concepts that matter, not the terms used to express
them.
176 I count four options, based on Ghazālīís own syntax. (He sets each phrase
off with wa ʿammā). The options are: even, odd, neither, or both. Perhaps key to
the way Ghazālī has numbered them is in the word aqsām, ìdivisions,î which
you could read as meaning ìodd or evenî as one, ìneitherî as two, and ìbothî as
three.
177 The manuscript followed by Asín (given in the critical apparatus of the
Ankara edition) read ìnineî as the example here.
178 Asín seems not to have translated this sentence fully. Rendered into
English, his translation at this point reads: Now as for [the number of these
revolutions] being divisible into two equal parts or not, it is absurd and false that
it is even [A 71] because even misses being odd for the lack of just one unit.
179 The examples that follow of counting the revolutions of the spheres are
restatements of the same argument Ghazālī makes in Tahāfut. See Marmura,
Incoherence, 18. See also my comments on the argument against the infinite
motion of the spheres in the introduction, the section on Ghazālīís fourth
introduction, where this issue first arises.
180 In other words, the items in this list are known to God, but not within his
214
power, resulting in one infinite set (things known by God) that logically must be
greater than the other infinite set (things within Godís power), an apparent
example of the logical misstep Ghazālī has just charged the falāsifah with
committing. Ghazālīís response (34.5 ff.) is an impressive display of this critical
style.
181 A note by the Arabic editors here refers to Iḥyāʾ, 5.1 (p. 106).
182 See, again, the same passage as the previous note.
183 Or ìoriginate due toî? (yuṣadara ʿan al-qadra), 36.4
184 This is the second of the possible sources of annihilation that Ghazālī lists
for investigation at 36.3
185 Ghazālī offers no further explanation for this assertion. Presumably it
would be that two eternals would have infinite extension in both time and space
and so would have been in contact with one another from eternity. The
possibility that two exact opposites might make contact at a point in time and
mutually annihilate one another is not entertained at all here.
186 This is the third of the possible sources of annihilation listed for
investigation at 36.3.
187 God was the being understood in all the previous discussion of ìthe eternal
[being].î
188 Ghazālī obviously intends ìsingle substancesîóthat is, atomsóhere.
189 Ghazālī uses both jism and jawhar in this discussion. The first is translated
as ìbodyî (or ìcorporealî in its adjectival form), the second as substance; but
later in the treatise Ghazālī shifts to using just jawhar, and seems to intend it to
indicate basic corporeality. Accordingly, hereafter I translate the term as
215
ìcorporeal substance.î See 40.2 and passim.
190 In this and the following passages, ìessenceî (dhāt) might best be
understood as referring to ìbeing.î I here translate jawhar as ìatomî rather than
ìsubstance,î since it is juxtaposed with body (which is defined as compound,
rather than single substance).
191 More literally: ìis not by way of attribute.î
192 A note by the Arabic editors is given here to Iḥyaʾ 5.1 (p. 107).
193 Here and in previous utterances we have an indication of the place
lexicology had in Islamic society, since it was linked to the interpretation of the
divine word revealed in Arabic.
194 This phrase translates bi-jahah, which is basically the same phrase that is
rendered as ìon a sideî at previous points in the discussion. The change is to
accommodate Ghazālīís own effort to discuss possible variations of meaning for
the same term.
195 Here the root word is wajh, cognate with jiha and also meaning face, facet,
side, or aspect.
196 The language here becomes obscure. Asín has glosses that deal with
quantity and other matters that seem to be the result of confusion on his own
part. As I read the passage, the interlocutor is advancing a syllogism with an
unstated conclusion. The completed argument would be: Things on a side
require a factor that determines their position; accidents make determinations;
therefore, spatial position is (or at least could be) a kind of accident. The implication
here is that that sort of accident would entail an essential spatial position that is
ontologically distinct from the substrate of matter. Otherwise it could not come
to be applied to material substances. Thus, for example, there would be accidents
of being up or being down, just as there are for being green and being cold. The
216
argument suggests that if directional accidents can exist separate from material
substrates, why could it not be the case that God is essentially ìup,î without any
basis of spatial relation? He could posses the characteristic essentially (not as an
accident in himself). It is to this implied argument that Ghazālī next responds.
197 Tabaʿiyyatihi, given here as ìinherence,î also implies subordination to and
dependence on.
198 Qurʾān 51.22, Pickthallís version.
199 These last two sentences were not translated by Asín.
200 Ghazālī seems to be saying that if something can be spatial, then it must be
spatial and does require dimension.
201 Jamād means ìinanimateî but also ìinorganicî or ìmineral.î It is the latter
meaning that Asín adopts.
202 Here is a strong claim of having made irrefutable proofs with respect to the
existence and nature of God.
203 Here Ghazālī uses al-wahm instead of al-khayāl for ìimagination,î
interchanging terms presumably to reinforce the point he made earlier that it is
the concept that matters, not the language in which it is couched.
204 This is an ambiguous phrase. It is not clear whether Ghazālī was referring
to the image of a being of sound, or to the imaginationís ability to have an image
generally, or something else.
205 Qurʾān 20:4, modified from Pickthallís version.
206 Qurʾān 42:11. My translation.
207 See further comments on this passage in the translatorís introduction.
217
208 This term is intended in the sense of things understood or apprehended
only by the mind.
209 Asínís note at this point reads: Many chapters begin with various Arabic
letters (alif, lam, mim; alif, lam, sad; alif, lam, ra, etc.) whose meaning is not known.
210 In citing ìcommon expressions,î Ghazālī is in the Aristotelian tradition of
using logemena, ìthings people say,î as evidence from which to derive his
arguments.
211 Asín notes: This is not a Qurʾānic text but rather one of those from the
traditions of the mystical Muslims which was supposedly communicated directly
by God to Muḥammad, many of which have an origin in the Christian gospel.
Thus, this is inspired by the epistle of the apostle James (4:8): ìAppropinquate
Deo et appropinquabit vobis.î Asín was often faulted by his critics for positing a
Christian source for most of what was substantive in Islam. This note may be
read as an example of that ideology at work. See Monroe, ìIslam and the Arabs
in Spanish Scholarship,î 191ñ92.
212 Asín notes that this text also is not found in the Qurʾān.
213 The editors of the Arabic have a note here referring to Iḥyaʾ 1:108.
214 Asín notes: ìThe throne of God is identified with the outermost celestial
sphere according to Islamic theology.î For a controversial reading of Ghazālīís
cosmology, see Richard Frank, Creation and the Cosmic System, and Ghazālī and the
Ashʿarite School. Frankís contention is that Ghazālī went beyond the cosmological
ideas accepted from Neoplatonism by the Ashʿarites and tacitly revealed his
acceptance of a version of nearly the entire cosmology á la Avicenna.
215 Qurʾān 41:11.
216 Dhikr: This is an important term in Sufi practice with which Ghazālī was
218
already well acquainted at the time he wrote this treatise and which he would
eventually come to advocate with great persuasiveness. Its basic meaning is ìto
rememberîóthat is, to remember God worshipfully.
217 As Asín mentions in a note at this point, Ghazālīís doctrine on the
metaphorical interpretation of the revealed anthropomorphic texts can be seen
more fully developed in his treatise Iljām al-ʿawāmm, a summary of which Asín
gives in an appendix.
218 This has reference to the geocentric cosmology that Ghazālī inherited from
Aristotle and Plotinus, the broad outlines of which had long since been generally
accepted. In that model, the cosmos was a nested series of concentric heavenly
spheres revolving around a common centeróthe earthówhich, though at the
center of the cosmos, was also its basest member. The revolutions of the heavenly
spheres were thought to condition events and outcomes in the sublunary world.
The thrust of the question posed at this point, then, allows Ghazālī to clarify that
though it was spatially at the center of the cosmos, in terms of ontological
hierarchy, the sublunary world came very last.
219 This saying employs a play on the Arabic words tharān and al-thurayyā,
meaning the ground and the Pleiades, respectively. Thus, two ontological
extremesóone base, the other heavenlyóare indicated by close cognate terms.
There is a sense, then, of bringing the two ends of a chain of being together or of
bridging the distance between them and emphasizing the totality and wholeness
of creation.
220 In other words, the claim that God is visible has implications for the
argument that God has no spatial relationóan ontological issue that is properly
discussed in this first part of Ghazālīís treatise.
221 The demonstration of logical possibility follows immediately. The
discussion of evidence from revelation begins at 65.8.
219
222 Here Ghazālī has in mind the five other attributes that were traditionally
ascribed to God by the Muslim theologians (life, will, sight, hearing, and speech).
223 At this point Asín sees a parallel between Ghazālīís argument and that of
Thomas Aquinas. See Summa theol: p. 1a, q. 12, a. I: ìRespondeo dicendum quod
cum unumquodque sit cognoscibile, secundum quod est in actu, Deums, qui est
actus purusÖ., quantum in se est, maxime cognoscibilis est.î
224 Reading faṣl instead of faḍl as given (without variants) in the text. If faḍl is
correct, then the phrase might be rendered as, ìAnd so there is no preferring you
over those [anthropomorphists].î But the construction really seems to call for
faṣl.
225 At this point Asín notes:
It is not certain that this last observation is precisely attested in the Arabic
text, which offers a great deal of obscurity, perhaps the result of changes
made by copyists. More than on the letter of the text, then, we have relied
on the context of the passage, which itself is none too clear in its
organization. The main idea is nevertheless evident: To demonstrate that
it is not an indispensable condition for the phenomenon of visionóeven
corporeal visionóthat the object seen should be in front of the viewer, nor
that it should be, therefore, on a specific side with respect to the viewer,
since a person that looks at himself in a mirror will see himself without
being in front of himself. Extrapolating this to the larger argument, then: It
is possible for a person to see God without his being present in front of
him or on one particular side of the viewer either.
226 The iron here refers, of course, to the polished material from which mirrors
were made prior to the modern period.
227 Ghazālī phrases the opponentís question slightly differently than at 65.4,
220
but the meaning is the same.
228 The first method, just concluded, was to show the logical possibility of
seeing God (see 61.8 for the beginning of the discussion). The second, which now
follows, is to show from the evidence of revelation that God has in fact been
ìseenî in the attenuated sense Ghazālī elaborates below.
229 This is an important summary of Ghazālīís exegetical methodology. For
further discussion of it see the translatorís introduction.
230 Maḥall (elsewhere translated as substrate).
231 Presumably Ghazālī is alluding to the intellect here metonymically.
232 As noted at 66.2, the object of vision is typically thought to be something
with color, extension, body, and other visible things and it is this common
understanding that Ghazālī is now addressing.
233 Translating bi-ʿainihi, an interesting word choice by Ghazālī given that it
derives from the word for eye.
234 Asín comments here that ìAl-Ghazālī is alluding to the eschatological
legend of the entrance of souls into Paradise, which is preceded by a double
ablution: external and internal.î
235 Here is a cogent statement of Ghazālīís belief in the supremacy and even
independence of thought over language, as well as a description of the encounter
with God that resonates with the Sufi teachings of dhawq and kashf.
236 The term here is ahl al-haq, or more literally translated, ìthe people of
truth.î By it Ghazālī would presumably have intended the Sunny branch of
Islam in general and the Ashʿarite school of theological thought in particular.
237 The first part, though it was not explicitly enumerated, was to show the
221
possible range of meaning associated with ìvisionî and so on. Now the task is to
show from revelation that, in at least one proper sense, God has been seen.
238 The term here, of course, is qurʾān.
239 Thus, the Qurʾan, the Hadith, and consensus (ijmaʿa) are all invoked as
revelatory or canonical witnesses to the possibility and desirability of the vision
of God.
240 Qurʿan 7:143.
241 Qurʿan 7:143.
242 Qurʿan 6:103.
243 See 2.4. Asín glosses this term as los verbalistas.
244 The Arabic term is tanzih. Asín translates it as ìvia de la eliminacion.î He
notes that of the two scholastic approaches to speaking of the divine essence and
attributes, Thomas Aquinas called the first via remotionis because it consists in
distinguishing God from the other beings por negativas differentias, for example,
ìDeus non est accidens, corpus,î etc.
245 The word taʿÅīl was an established theological term for ìdenying God all
attributes.î Again this might be connected with the via negativa.
246 Al-iqtiṣād fī al-iʾtiqād, the phrase that Ghazālī used for the title of his book.
247 The term is hudd. There could be other ways to render this, including ìno
limitî or ìno bound.î Asín glossed it as ìno parts,î but this does not seem
faithful enough to the original term. Abū Zayd translated this sentence and
rendered hudd as ìdefinition,î which is correct in a literal sense, but seems too
strong a claim here, unless one is prepared to argue that Ghazālī was referring
here to the unknowability of God. (For Abū Zaydís translation, see his Divine
222
Predicates, x.)
248 Unless I have misread it, this statement seems circular: God is not
quantifiable because he cannot be divided; and he cannot be divided because he
is not quantifiable.
249 Translating ḍidd, meaning an opposite or contrast.
250 The Arabic word here and in the discussion that follows is haqīqa rather
than dhāt.
251 Asín notes that ìthis same demonstration is used by St. Thomas in his
Summa, c.f. 1.1, c. 42, ëQuod Deus est unus,í summarized thus: Praeterea
ostensum est (c. 28) Deum esse omniono perfectum, cui nulla perfection desit; si
ligitur sunt plures dii, oportet esse plura hujusmodi perfecta. Hoc autem est
impossibile; nam si nulli eorum deest aliqua perfectio, nec aliqua imperfection ei
admiscaeatur, quod requiritur ad hoc quod aliquid sit simpliciter perfectum, non
erit in quo ab invicem distinguantur. Impossibile est igitur plures deos ponere.î
252 There may be a logical problem here. Just because a being has absolute
power does not mean that he exercises it in an absolute way. If it is possible for a
being, though all-powerful to nevertheless exercise power in a limited way (and
it must be, if the agent is truly free), then can there be no reason why that
limitless power is not used in its full possible extent?
253 This might be a problematical statement. If substance cannot exist without
accident, then why speak of them as essentially separate? The answer,
presumably, is to distinguish between actual and possible existence. In this way,
all forms and all accidents might exist separately, but only in potential. To
become actual, they require each other. Ghazālī does not explicitly address this
nuance in the passage at hand, but it is within the context of their ìactualizationî
that he refers to their interdependence.
223
254 Asín notes that this argument for the singularity of God and in opposition
to dualism or polytheism was traditional in the dogmatic theology of Islam and
was technically called the method of mutual hindrance. Asín also notes that Aquinas
basically relies on the same principle when he says in Summa c.g. 1.1.c. 42,
ìMelius est per unum fieri quam per multa.î It is not clear to me why, according
to Ghazālī, substance could not be created or could not exist without accident, as
he here asserts without any supporting logic.
255 That is, obligatory.
256 Presumably Ghazālī means by this that evil and good alike are moral
qualities that depend upon the same absolute standard for their definition.
257 The shahadah.
258 Qurʾān 21:22.
GLOSSARY
This glossary follows the order of the Arabic alphabet. Root letters are given
first, derivates after a slash. Multiple glosses for the same derived term are
separated by colons. Notes on grammar or morphology are given within brackets
next to the terms. Notes contain further discussion and references to other
authorities. The numbers indicate page and line numbers of an occurrence in the
Arabic text.
ʾBD / abadan : to eternity, 27.9. See also azal and qadīmah
ʾZL / azal : from eternity, 27.9. See also abadan and qadīmah
ʾṢL / aṣl (dual=aṣlayn) literally, ìroot,î but usually translated here as
ìpremise.î
ʾNS / anisa bi- : is attuned to, 49.12
ʾWL / awwali : axiomatic, 26.7
BDD / lā budd : invariably, 29.8
BDL / tabaddul : change, 27.4
BḤTh / baḥath : investigation, 2.1 / baḥatha : argues, 38.8
225
BRHN / burhān : demonstration
BÄL / bāÅl : untrue, 32.14 : annihilate(d), 30.5
TBʿ / tābaʿan : (a) given (fact), 30.11 / tabaʿīya : inherence, 43.12
TQL / intaqāl : transfer, 30.2
ThBT / thabata : (āthbāta) to prove, 31.12 : to establish, 29.6 / thabt : fixed, 30.7 :
correct, 32.5 : positive, 36.4 / thubūt (thawābit) : certainty, 24.13
JMD / jamād : inanimate body, 48.10; also means mineral or inorganic body.
JWZ / jūz : to be conceivable, 25.13 / jāʾiz : possible, 43.1 / jawāz : contingency,
42.9 / ijāza : compendium, 31.11
JWHR / jawhar : substance,259 24.10; corporeal substance, 40.2 and ff.
ḤDTh / ḥādith : temporal thing or event, 20.7 : existence (or existing) in time
and temporal thing, 24.6 : having a beginning, 35.4
ḤRK / ḥaraka : motion
ḤSY / ḥasiyyāt (from ḥass) : sensations, 20.6
ḤQ / taḥqīq : verify/verification, 25.6; confirm, 26.5 / haqiqa : truth
ḤLL / maḥall : substrate, 29.8, 74,3; locus, 66.3 ff.
ḤWZ / hayyiz : place, 29.6; space, 41.4 / mutaḥayyiz : that which occupies
space, 24.13 (Taḥafut, Arabic 5.9); spatial being, 26.11
ḤWÄ / taḥīÅ : to fully comprehend, 72.6
226
ḤWL / ḥāla : to change, 36.4 / muḥāl : impossible, 27.6 (see Hans Wehr, 255).
KhṢ /khaṣa : specify / ikhtiṣāṣ : specification,260 29.7, 10; 41.3; vt. ikhtaṣa ; single
out, 42.11; occupy (a place in space), 48.2
KhṢM / khaṣm : opponent, 27.5 (and much earlier)
KhLF / khilāf : contrasting, 30.16
KhLW / khulūw ʿan : is devoid of, 26.9
KhYL / mutakhīl, conceivable, 49.9 / al-khayāl, (intellectual) conception, 49.10
DRK / daraka : perceive, 25.5 / madārik/mudārik : sources [of cognition]261, 20.3 :
that which is perceived, 20.6; perceptible (adj.) 25.3
DʾM / dāʾima : continous, 27.8
DʿW / adaʿī [form 4, which Wehr does not list; but see form 6, ìcall each other
forthî] : summon, 26.12
DL / dalīl (pl. adillah) : proof
DhHB / madhhab : school, but can also mean ìdoctrineî and some cases in the
Iqtisad might warrant a revision to this effect.262
DhW / dhāt : essence
RTB / martaba, rutba : rank /See Walzer, Perfect State, 359.
RJḤ / murajjiḥ : deciding factor, 25.15
ZḤL / zuḥal : The planet Saturn, 33.8
227
ZWL / zāla : to end, 35.11
SB / sabab : [inferior] cause263; see also ʿilla
SR / sirr : secret 30.2
SLF / salaf264 : forefathers265, 52.4
SMʿ / samʿa (samʿiyyāt) : things that are heard (discussed in the translatorís
introduction), 22.6
ShBH / tashbih : anthropomorphism, 52.1 / shabha : to be anthropomorphist,
73.1
ShRḤ / sharḥ : (detailed) explanation, 24.6, 26.5
ShRÄ / sharaÅ : precondition 36.3
ShFʿ / shifʿa : even, 32.9
ShHD / mushāhidah : the witness
ShWF / tashūf : inquiry, 19.3
ShYʿ / shāʾiʿ : well-known, common
ṢDR / ṣadara : to proceed (from), 36.4
ṢF / ṣaffah266 : attribute, 40.6
ṢNʿ / ṣā_____________nʿa : Maker (i.e., God), 34.15
ṢLḤ / iṣÅilāḥāt267 : technical terms, 19.6
228
ṢNF / taṣānīf : (literary) works, 27.1
ḌD / ḍad : an opposite, 36.3 : complement, 74.3 / maḍādah : contrariety, 36.13
ḌL / ḍalāl : error
ÄLB / Åalib : desired (or sought for), 18.6
ÄLQ / iÅlāq : absolute sense (meaning), 40.7
ÄYR / Åār : to pass away, 35.14
ẒHR / ẓahīr : apparent meaning
ʿBR / ʿibāra : (verbal) expression, 29.6
ʿDM / ʿadam : nonexistence, 25.15, 30.12
ʿRF / maʿrifa : gnosis268
ʿÄL / taʿÅīl : ìa theological concept denying God all attributes (as opposed to
tashbīh)î, 73.1
ʿQB / ʿaqīb : one who or that which succeeds or is subsequent, 37.14
ʿQL / ʿaql : intellect : intellectual reason, 40.9, 41.14 / maʿqulāt : intelligibles,
52.6 /ʿāqul : intellectual, 54.5
ʿLM / ʿilm : knowledge (wherever possible) : cognition (referring to each of
the three parts of a syllogism), 15.12 / muʿalūmāt : cognizable things, 33.16
ʿLW / ʿilla : superior [cause]269; see also sabab
229
ʿNṢR [quadriliteral] / ʿanāṣir : elements (the four), 27.9
ʿYN / muʿayin : specific, 30.9 / individual
GhRḌ / gharaḍ : objective 31.9
GhLÄ / ughlūÅah : captious question, 9.12
FÄN / faÅina : to understand, 18.5, 19.3
FQD / faqada : be deprived; privation
FK / infakka (form 7) : to be separated, 32. 14
FʿL / fāʿal : agent 36.6
QDR / qadar : extension,270 49.11 / qadara : to determine, 31.7 / qādir :
possessing or having power, 36.5 / qudra : faculty : power, 36.3 / muqdār (?) :
(having) extension, 50.5 / maqdūr : compassable, attainable271
QDM / qadīmah : eternal (in the generic), 27.10 /see also abadan and azal /
aqdam : prior to272
QR / mustaqarra : abide (in or on s.th), 51.1
QʿR / muqaʿr falak al-qamr : the sublunary world, 27.9
QLD / taqlid273 : blind following
QWM / quwām : basis, 30.12
QYS / qiyās : syllogism (in philos.), deduction
KNF / iktanafa : to embrace, encompass s.th., 72.6 (c.f. ḤWÄ)
230
KLM / kalām : I have prefered not to translate this term, but if it must be
translated, I incline to ìdefensive apologeticî or perhaps ìapologetic
theology?î274
LZM / lazim : to follow necessarily, 24.7
LFẒ / lafẓ : word, 9.12
LHQ / mutlaḥiqa : a succession (of things or events), 27.8
MD / māddah : matter, 27.10
MS / māssa (form 3) : contact
MKN / mumkinan : contingent, 25.15 /mutamakkin : situated, 51.1
NZH / munnazah : have nothing to do with, 50.15 / tanzih :
deanthropomorphism, 72.14
NẒR / naẓar : theoretical reflection, 1ñ18 (in general), 24 : rational speculation
(change this to one or the other of the above), 19.2 / naẓara275 to consider / nāzir
theoretical inquiry (active participle of naẓar), 23.2
NQḌ / naqaḍa to be destroyed, 17.6
WTR / watara : odd (in number), 32.9 / tawātur (mutawātir) : corroborative
reports 6.13, 21.6. (See Weissís discussion of this in ìKnowledge of the Past,î
esp. p. 100; also my translation note 36.)
WJD / mawjūd : existent : being, 49.4 / wujūd : existence
WJH / jihah276 : fī jihah waḥida : in one repect, 31.9 : fī jihah makhṣūṣah : specified
aspect, 41.2 (perhaps it should be ìplaceî, a good generic term) / wajh : of this
term, Marmura (personal correspondence) writes that it translates in various
231
ways. In Muʿtazilite kalam, for example, it can translate at times as ìaspectî or
sometimes as ìground,î such as what renders uttering a falsehood an evil. ìIn
logic,î he writes, ìit refers to mode and hence to modal arguments, modal
syllogisms.î In the kalam context encountered in this work, Marmura has
suggested ìmannerî as an appropriate translation, and I have tried to follow his
suggestion.
WṢF / waṣf : characteristic, 50.15 (cf. ṣaffah) / ittaṣaffa bi (form 8) : to be
characterzed by, 32.13
WḌʿ / waḍʿ : usage (of language), 38.8 / wāḍiʿ : originator (of language), 38.9
WFQ / tawfīq : success (granted by God), 19.14
WQF / tawaqqufa fī (form 5) : be undecided, 25.9
232
Notes
259 In both kalam and falsafah; see Lane, Lexicon, and Walzer, Perfect State, 337.
260 Based on context more than the Wehr definition of ìjurisdiction, special
province or domain.î If the basic meaning of the form 8 verb is followed, this
choice is defensible. Asín at 42.2ñ3 had ìdetermination,î but ìspecificationî is, I
think, more accurate.
261 Following Weiss, ìKnowledge of the Past,î 86 (in the note).
262 Based on McCarthy, Deliverance, 113 n. 134; see also Saflo, Al-Juwaynīís
Thought, 120.
263 There is a useful note with references on this term in Walzer, On the Perfect
State, 336ñ37 nn. 24, 25. He says ìThe notion of ëFirst Causeí [sabab al-awal] does
not exist inÖ Kalām.î And in Muʿtazilite theology, sabab means proximate or
intermediate cause. See also the discussion in the glossary at ʿilla (ʿLW).
264 This is a collective noun that is commonly understood as a plural even
when the grammatical form is singular. For example, the context at 52.4, ìsome
of,î makes it clear that such is the case with that passage. For salaf as a ìquasiplural,
î see both Lane and Wehr.
265 Meaning, the Companions of the Prophet and early believers. See Martin et
al., Defenders of Reason, 15.
266 This is an interesting term. Lane says ìan appurtenance of a houseî; in
particular a porch or other extended roof or awning, such as one attached to a
mosque where people sometimes took shelter. In Ghazālīís context, ìfixtureî
might be apt.
267 See also lafẓ and the note to 19.7
268 This gloss is not uncontroversial, but it serves to make the distinction
233
between rational knowledge (ʿilm), and knowledge that is brought about through
mystical perception or unveiling (kashf).
269 See Walzer, On the Perfect State, p. 337 and n. 33 there. ìAl-Ghazzali. . .
assigns different meanings to ʿilla as a superior and sabab as an inferior cause.î
270 Following Asín and based on context. Wehr has ìmeasure, quantity,
amount,î etc.
271 See L. E. Goodman, ìDid al-Ghazālī Deny Causality?,î 1
272 Walzer adds, ìoften in the sense of ëeternal a parte anteíî (Perfect State,
337).
273 See Lazarus-Yafeh, ìSome notes on the term ëtaqlīdí in the writings of al-
Ghazzalī,î appendix B in Studies in al-Ghazālī, p. 488 ff.
274 For the argument for this gloss, see McCarthy, Deliverance, 100 n. 6.
275 This term is often associated with baḥatha; see 2.1 and 18.4.
276 Also, see the discussion of side and aspect as pertaining to God at [41 ff.],
where this term is important.
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